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UNLOADING   SUPPLIES   DUKIN(i   THE   WOULD  WAR  FOR 
OUR  BOYS  "OYER  THERE" 


GEOGRAPHICAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES 


THE  NEW  EUROPE 


BY 


NELLIE  B.  ALLEN 


GINN  AND  COMPANY 

BOSTON     •     NEW   YORK     •    CHICAGO    •     LONDON 
ATLANTA    •     DALLAS     •     COLUMBUS     •     SAN    FRANCISCO 


68833 


COPYRIGHT,  1913,  1920,  BY 
NELLIE  B.  ALLEN 


ALL  RIGHTS  RESERVED 
525.1 


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GINN  AND  COMPANY-  PRO- 
PRIETORS •  BOSTON  •  U.S.A. 


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PREFACE 


We  are  told  that  geography  is  a  description  of  the  earth 
•^  as  the  home  of  man.  If  we  accept  the  definition,  then  it 
'K    is  not  the  earth  but  man  in  his  relation  to  it  which  should 

^  be  the  central  pomt  of  our  teaching. 
'::^\^       Children   are  interested,  primarily,  in   life.    Maps  and 
names  of  rivers,  mountains,  and  cities  convey  little  signifi- 
cance unless  they  stand  for  the  actual  life  of  the  places  of 
which  they  are  the  symbols.     The  teacher  should  aim  to 
v^    help  pupils  in  forming  clear  mental  pictures  of  the  life 
O     and  conditions  which  underlie  all  map  symbols. 

The  aim  of  this  volume  is  to  depict  graphically  yet 
simply  the  life  of  Europe ;  to  help  the  children  to  see  in 
imagination  the  lofty  mountains,  the  fertile  valleys,  the 
clustering  villages,  the  broad  plains,  the  crowded  cities, 
the  busy  seaports,  the  vineyards,  the  shipyards,  the  olive 
orchards,  the  flax  fields,  the  castles  and  palaces,  the  toiling 
^^  peasants,  and  the  changes  wrought  by  the  World  War  in 
their  lives  and  countries.  These  things  make  Europe  as 
it  is  to-day.  Both  text  and  illustrations  are  planned  to 
show  the  people  and  their  work,  as  it  is  through  the  life 
of  the  people  that  one  learns  the  character  of  the  nation. 
What  the  people  of  the  world  are  doing  determines  what 
the  world  is  to-day.  The  life  of  the  United  States  depends 
in  great  measure  on  the  life,  and  especially  on  the  indus- 
trial life,  of  other  nations  with  whom  in  the  future  our 


in 


iv  INDUSTRIAL    STUDIES  —  EUROPE 

relations  will  be  closer  than  in  the  past.  For  this  reason 
our  future  voters,  who  are  at  present  enrolled  in  our 
schools,  should  become  as  intimately  acquaintea  as  pos- 
sible with  our  commercial  neighbors  across  the  water.  This 
is  the  practical  twentieth-century  geography. 

Locational  geography  should  not  be  neglected.  The  maps 
which  are  given  are  intended  to  be  used  with  the  text  in 
order  that  the  pupil  may  fix  the  location  of  a  place  at  the 
time  when  he  becomes  acquainted  with  its  life.  The  lists  at 
the  end  of  each  chapter  will  be  found  helpful  for  drills  on 
locations  and  for  fixing  in  mind  the  most  important  facts. 
Many  places  in  other  continents  than  Europe  are  included 
in  these  lists,  and  the  pupils'  knowledge  is  thus  broadened 
to  include  the  whole  world. 

We  are  indebted  to  the  Corticelli  Silk  Mills,  Florence, 
Massachusetts,  for  permission  to  use  their  splendid  lifelike 
copyrighted  photographs  of  the  silkworms.  Many  teachers 
will  be  glad  to  know  that  they  can  obtain  from  the 
Corticelli  Mills,  at  slight  expense,  specimen  cocoons  and 
other  helps  for  object-lesson  teaching. 

NELLIE  B.  ALLEN 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I.  Introduction 1 

II.  Ships  and  Shipbuilding 17 

III.  Ireland  and  the  Linen  Industry 40 

IV.  Jute,  Hemp,  and  Other  Fibers 56 

V.  The  Brave  Little  Country  of  Belgium   ...  65 

VI.  Manufacturing  England 76 

VII.  Portugal  and  its  Cork  Forests 105 

VIII.  A  Trip  through  Russia 123 

IX.  Finland  and  Lapland 157 

X.  Sweden  and  her  Forests 165 

XL  Germany  and  the  Would  War 174 

XII.  The    Countries    of    Central    Europe    and    the 

Danube  River 200 

XIII.  The  Netherlands  and  Other  Dairying  Countries  231 

XIV.  The  Country  of  Poland 2.55 

XV.  A  Trip  to  Norway  and   the   Fishing   Grounds 

OF  Europe 274 

XVI.  Spain  and  Olives 307 

XVII.  Grapes   and    Wine  and    the    Countries    which 

produce  them 326 

XVIII.  Italy  and  Macaroni 347 

XIX.  The  Queen  of  Fibers 362 

XX.  The  Countries  of  the  Balkan  Peninsula      .     .  389 

GENERAL  REVIEW 418 

INDEX ,....,...  421 

V 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIGURE  PAGE 

Unloading  Supplies  during  the  World  War  for  our  Boys  "Over 

There  "  (in  colors) Frontispiece 

1.  St.  Bernard  Pass 5 

2.  The  Italian  Village  of  Iselle 6 

3.  Taking  Care  of  the  Baby  in  Jugoslavia 8 

4.  A  Scene  in  Holland 10 

5.  A  Little  Tartar  Boy 12 

6.  An  Ocean  Liner  leaving  the  Wharf Irf 

7.  Her  Funnels  would  be  Large  enough  for  a  Subway 19 

8.  In  a  Great  Shipyard 21 

9.  Boilers  of  the  Olympic 23 

10.  Loch  Lomond 26 

11.  The  Mauretania  and  the  Capitol 27 

12.  The  Size  of  the  Mauretania  compared  with  that  of  City  Blocks  .  29 

13.  Tlie  Great  Battleship  North  Dakota       32 

14.  The  Rudder  of  the  Olympic 37 

15.  Emigrants  from  Queenstown il 

16.  St.  Patrick's  Street,  Cork 42 

17.  An  Irish  Jaunting  Car 43 

18.  A  Home  in  Ireland 44 

19.  Cutting  Peat 47 

20.  Linen  bleaching  in  the  Sun 49 

21.  Hackling  Flax -51 

22.  A  Hemp  Field 59 

23.  Combing  Hemp 60 

24.  Twine  in  the  Storage  Rooms  of  a  Great  Factory 61 

25.  Manila  Hemp 62 

26.  Sisal  Hemp 63 

27.  Ruins  of  a  Belgian  Town 67 

28.  A  Dog  Team  in  Belgivmi 72 

29.  Flax  Retting  in  the  River  Lys 74 

30.  The  Docks  at  Liverpool , -  80 

31.  The  Manchester  Ship  Canal 82 

32.  The  Docks  at  Manchester 83 

vi 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS  vii 

FIGURE  PAGE 

33.  Cotton  Goods  awaiting  Shipment  at  Manchester 85 

34.  City  Hall,  Birmingham 93 

35.  The  Royal  Exchange  and  Bank  of  England,  London     ....  97 

36.  Houses  of  Parliament,  London 100 

37.  London  Bridge 101 

38.  A  Narrow  Street  in  Lisbon 100 

39.  Using  Threshing  Flails  in  Portugal 109 

40.  An  Ox  Team  in  Portugal Ill 

41.  Cork  Strippers  at  Work ILS 

42.  The  First  and  Second  Stripping  of  Cork 114 

43.  "Weighing  Cork 115 

44.  Making  Corks  by  Hand 110 

45.  Cork  stored  in  a  Warehouse 117 

46.  The  Largest  Cork  Manufactory  in  the  World 118 

47.  Stoppers  bored  out  from  Strips  of  Cork       119 

48.  The  Nevsky  Prospekt 126 

49.  A  Russian  Troika 128 

50.  The  Port  of  Archangel 130 

51.  A  Russian  Village 132 

52.  The  Log  House  of  a  Ru.ssian  Peasant 133 

53.  A  Wattled  Shed  for  Stores  or  for  Animals 134 

54.  Russian  Peasants 136 

55.  The  Volga  River 138 

56.  A  Russian  Peasant 140 

57.  The  Tall  Tower  of  Ivan  the  Terrible 142 

58.  Sheepskins  and  Goatskins  on  the  Sands  at  Nizhni  Novgorod      .  145 

59.  The  Bell  Fair  at  Nizhni  Novgorod 146 

60.  The  Cloth  Market  at  Nizhni  Novgorod 147 

61.  Scene  on  the  Wharves  at  Odessa 151 

62.  Great  Staircase,  Odessa 153 

63.  Winter  Sports 158 

64.  Selling  her  Milk 160 

65.  Helsingfors 161 

6Q.    A  Lapp  and  his  Reindeer 163 

67.  A  View  of  Stockholm 166 

68.  The  Katrina  Elevator,  Stockholm 167 

69.  Farm  Scene  in  Norway 168 

70.  Going  to  Church  in  Boats  in  Sweden 169 

71.  Principal  Street  in  Jonkoping 171 


viii  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 

FIGURE  PAGE 

72.  Farming  near  Jonkoping 172 

73.  A  Field  of  Sugar  Beets 178 

74  A  Hop  Field  in  Germany 179 

75  The  Kiel  Canal 181 

76.  Vineyards  and  Castles  on  the  Rhine 182 

77.  German  Emigrants 186 

78.  The  Oder  River  and  Stettin 189 

79.  Making  Dolls 191 

80.  Making  Cuckoo  Clocks 195 

81.  Farm  Life  in  Czechoslovakia 202 

82.  :\Iaking  Butter 203 

83    Sheep-raising 205 

84.  A  Market  Scene,  Serbia 207 

85.  A  Town  in  Jugoslavia 208 

86.  A  Potter  at  Work 210 

87.  A  Village  Scene  in  Jugoslavia 211 

88.  Ulm,  the  Head  of  Navigation  on  the  Danube 213 

89.  Farm  Scene  in  the  Danube  Valley 214 

90.  Passau,  a  Queer  Old  Town 216 

91.  Cliffs  and  Castles  on  the  Danube 217 

92.  The  Prater,  Vienna 219 

93.  Stacking  Grain  in  the  Fields       222 

94.  Women  washing  on  the  Banks  of  the  Danube 223 

95.  Carts  of  the  Hungarian  Plain 225 

96.  The  Royal  Palace,  Budapest 226 

97.  A  Street  in  Budapest 227 

98.  Windmills  in  the  Netherlands 233 

99.  A  Modern  Dairy  in  the  Netherlands 235 

100.  Cheeses  in  a  Modern  Dairy 238 

101.  A  Canal  in  Am.sterdam 240 

102.  A  Dog  Team  in  the  Netherlands 242 

103.  A  View  of  Copenhagen 245 

104.  A  Valley  in  Switzerland 246 

105.  Peasant  Women  of  Poland  Driving  Geese 257 

106.  The  City  of  Warsaw 259 

107.  Plowing  in  Poland 260 

108.  A  Pyramid  of  Salt 264 

109.  Salt  Making 265 

110.  Raking  Salt  from  the  Shallow  Ponds 266 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS  ix 

FIGURE  PAGE 

111.  Deep  Bays,  called  Fiords,  fringe  the  Coast  of  Norway     .    .    .  275 

112.  The  Lofoten  Islands 277 

113.  King  Herring 278 

114.  "  We  should  eat  Fish,  see  Fish,  and  smell  Fish  " 280 

115.  Collecting  and  shipping  Fish  in  Bergen 281 

116.  A  View  of  Hammerf  est 280 

117.  A  View  of  North  Cape 287 

118.  Grass  drying  in  Norway 289 

119.  A  SaAer,  or  Dairy  House 290 

120.  A  Norwegian  Housewife  baking  Fladhrod 291 

121.  Christiania 293 

122.  Skiing  in  Norway ;  294 

123.  A  Feat  in  Skiing 295 

124.  Sardine  Fishing  Boats 301 

125.  Drying  Sardines 304 

126.  Casks  of  Olive  Oil 309 

127.  Olive  Orchards 311 

128.  The  Home  of  a  Spanish  Peasant 312 

129.  ricking  Olives 313 

130.  Curing  Olives 314 

131.  Weighing  Olives 315 

132.  Crusliing  Olives  for  Oil 316 

133.  Pressing  Olives 317 

134.  Barcelona 318 

135.  A  Street  in  an  Old  Spanish  Town 319 

136.  Bullock  Team  used  in  Spain 321 

137.  Washing  Clothes  by  the  Riverside 323 

138.  The  Largest  Grapevine  in  the  World 327 

139.  A  Vineyard  in  Southern  Spain 330 

140.  Packing  Malaga  Grapes 331 

141.  Planting  a  Vineyard 332 

142.  Wine  Casks 336 

143.  Cathedral  at  Rheims 841 

144.  School  Children  in  Alsace 342 

145.  A  Wine  Cellar 343 

146.  Macaroni  drying  in  the  Streets 348 

147.  A  Macaroni  Factory 349 

148.  A  Street  Scene  in  Naples 351 

149.  Half -grown  Silkworms 362 


X  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 

FIGURE  PAGE 

150.  A  Spray  from  a  Mulberry  Tree 363 

151.  Silkworm  Feeders 364 

152.  A  Silkworm  Feeding 366 

153.  Cocoons  in  a  Bunch  of  Straw 367 

154.  A  Silkworm  spinning  its  Cocoon 368 

155.  A  Moth  emerging  from  the  Cocoon 369 

156.  A  Moth  and  its  Cocoon 370 

157.  A  Mulberry  Tree 371 

158.  A  Complete  Cocoon 372 

159.  Bringing  the  Cocoons  to  the  Factory 373 

160.  Books  and  Bales  of  Raw  Silk 375 

161.  A  Silk  Factory 377 

162.  Reeling  Silk  from  the  Cocoon 378 

163.  Weaving  Silk 380 

164.  The  Arch  of  Triumph 382 

165.  Sightseeing  in  Constantinople 392 

166.  A  Street  in  Constantinople 393 

167.  Farming  in  Sight  of  Wonderful  Ruins 396 

168.  The  Stadium  in  Athens       400 

169.  Blossoms  to  be  used  in  making  Attar  of  Roses 405 

170.  Picking  Flowers  in  Grassc 406 

171.  Working  in  a  Field  of  Flowers 407 

172.  Picking  Violets 408 

173.  A  Fragrant  Load 409 

174.  In  a  Perfume  Factory 410 

175.  A  Rumanian  Peasant  Wife 412 

176.  A  Petroleum  Peddler 413 

177.  Bucharest,  Rumania 414 


LIST  OF  MAPS 

1.  Europe 1 

2.  The  Western  Front  in  the  World  War 12 

3.  British  Isles 20 

4.  Russia  and  Scandinavia 124 

6.    Germany,  Holland,  and  Belgium 178 

6.  Southeastern  Europe 200 

7.  Southwestern  Europe 308 


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 


Thanks  are  due  to  the  following  individuals  and  business  firms  for 
their  valuable  assistance  in  the  shape  of  suggestions,  criticisms,  photo- 
graphs, and  other  material :  American  Manufacturing  Co.,  cordage  and 
twines.  New  York  City  ;  Anger  Baking  Co.,  manufacturers  of  maca- 
roni, New  York  City  ;  Armstrong  Cork  Co.,  Pittsburgh,  Pennsylvania ; 
B.  E.  Baker,  Corona  Kid  Co.,  Boston,  Massachusetts;  Oscar  Bauer, 
Staudt  and  Co.,  importers,  Berlin  and  New  York  ;  Dr.  Alfred  Cann, 
principal  of  Municipal  Day  Training  School  for  Teachers,  Manchester, 
England  ;  Cheney  Bros.,  manufacturers  of  silk.  South  Manchester,  Con- 
necticut ;  Antoine  Chiris  Co.,  Essential  Oils,  Grasse,  Cannes,  and  Paris, 
France,  London,  and  New  York  City  ;  Adolph  Cohen,  editor  of  Scandi- 
navia (the  oldest  Swedish  newspaper  in  New  England)  ;  Cornforth  and 
Marx,  silk  manufacturers,  Fitchburg,  Massachusetts ;  Bruno  Court, 
parfumeur,  distillateur,  Grasse,  Prance  ;  William  Cramp  and  Sons,  Ship 
and  Engine  Building  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania;  Cunard  Steamship 
Co.,  New  York  City  ;  William  B.  Dennis,  brokers  in  canned  goods,  Port- 
land, Maine  ;  John  H.  Duncan,  salt  manufacturing,  Ithaca,  New  York  ; 
Eelswick  Ordnance  Co.,  Newcastle  upon  Tyne,  England  ;  Fore  River 
Shipbuilding  Co.,  Quincy,  Massachusetts ;  Hanson  and  Orth,  hemp 
brokers.  New  York  City  and  London ;  D.  0.  Haynes,  editor  of  Phar- 
maceutical Era,  New  York  City ;  H.  J.  Heinze  and  Co.,  Pittsburgh, 
Pennsylvania  ;  Hope  Foundry,  manufacturers  of  jiite  machinery,  Leeds, 
England  ;  International  Harvester  Co.,  Chicago,  Illinois  ;  International 
Salt  Co.,  Ithaca,  New  York  ;  Professor  Alois  von  Isakovics,  proprietor 
of  Synfleur  Scientific  Laboratories,  Monticello,  New  York  ;  Kentucky 
Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Lexington,  Kentucky  ;  William  Ken- 
yon  and  Sons,  rope  manufacturers,  Dukinfield,  England  ;  J.  W.  Lovatt, 
secretary  of  Silk  Association  of  America,  New  York  City ;  Ludlow  Manu- 
facturing Associates,  jute  and  hemp,  Boston,  Massachusetts;  Manchester 
Ship  Canal  Co.,  Manchester,  England,  and  New  York  City;  Roger  and 
Gallet,  perfumers,  Paris  and  New  York  City;  Henry  Scholtz,  Lisbon,  Por- 
tugal ;  G.  R.  Schroeder,  Italian  Chamber  of  Commerce,  New  York  City ; 

xi 


xii  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 

• 
A.  Stowell  and  Co.,  jewelers,  Boston,  Massachusetts;  Sunset  Magazine, 
San  Francisco,  California ;  Lee  J.  Vance,  editor  of  American  Wine  Press, 
secretary  of  American  Wine  Growers'  Association  ;  White  Star  Steam- 
ship Co.,  New  York  City  ;  York  St.  Flax  Spinning  Co.,  Belfast,  Ireland  ; 
officials  of  the  Public  Library,  Boston,  Massachusetts ;  officials  of  the 
Public  Library,  Pitchburg,  Massachusetts ;  departments  of  government, 
Washington,  D.  C. ;  American  and  European  consuls ;  Chamber  of  Com- 
merce, Boston,  Massachusetts  ;  Board  of  Trade,  Paterson,  New  Jersey ; 
Board  of  Trade  and  Transportation,  New  York  City  ;  W.  L.  Manson, 
Glasgow  Herald,  Glasgow,  Scotland  ;  Robert  McBratney,  secretary  of 
Linen  Trade  Association;  Mitsui  and  Co.,  raw  silk  importers,  New  York 
City;  Will  S.  Munroe,  author  of  "Turkey  and  the  Turk,"  "In  Viking 
Land,"  etc.  ;  H.  C.  Newcomb,  olive  importer,  Philadelphia,  Pennsyl- 
vania ;  Hartvig  Nissen,  director  of  physical  training,  Brookline,  Mas- 
sachusetts ;  North  German  Lloyd  Steamship  Co.,  New  York  City ; 
Nozawaya  and  Co.,  raw  silk  importers,  New  York  City ;  S.  S.  Pierce  Co., 
wholesale  and  retail  grocers,  Boston,  Massachusetts ;  Plymouth  Cordage 
Co.,  Plymouth,  Massachusetts;  C.  L.  Preston,  Corona  Kid  Co.,  Riga, 
Russia;  Jerome  C.  Read,  president  of  Silk  Association  of  America, 
New  York  City. 


THE  NEW  EUROPE 


CHAPTER  I 
li^TRODUCTION 

Across  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  three  thousand  miles  from 
the  United  States,  lies  the  continent  of  Europe,  which  we 
are  to  study.  In  many  respects  it  is  very  different  from 
North  America,  and  one  of  the  best  ways  in  which  to  be- 
come better  acquainted  with  it  is  to  notice  some  of  the 
differences  and  to  contrast  it  with  our  own  continent  and 
country. 

Because  of  the  industry  of  the  people  and  the  advan- 
tages which  Mother  Nature  has  bestowed  so  liberally  upon 
it,  Europe  is  very  important  both  in  manufacturing  and 
commerce.  Its  importance  is  not  due  to  its  size,  however, 
for,  excepting  Australia,  it  is  the  smallest  of  the  continents. 
It  is  less  than  half  the  size  of  all  North  America,  its  area 
being  about  equal  to  that  of  the  United  States  and  Mexico. 
Imagine  these  two  countries  divided  among  twenty  or  more 
nations,  differing  in  government,  laws,  language,  and  cus- 
toms, and  you  have  some  idea  of  the  conditions  in  the 
continent  of  Europe. 

The  people  of  these  different  countries  are  continually 
rubbing  shoulders  with  nations  who  speak  other  languages 
and  have  other  customs.  Nowhere  in  the  world  can  one 
find  people  who  learn  foreign  languages  as  readily  as  do 

1 


2  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 

the  Europeans.  It  is  not  uncommon  for  the  more  educated 
classes  to  converse  in  five  or  six  languages,  while  the 
working  classes  can  often  use  one  or  two  besides  their 
native  tongue. 

The  situation  of  Europe  favors  a  high  degree  of  civiliza- 
tion. Contrast  her  position  with  that  of  North  America. 
We  are  in  the  midst  of  a  great  ocean  mass,  three  thousand 
miles  from  Europe  on  the  one  hand,  and  nearly  twice  that 
distance  from  Asia  on  the  other,  while  our  continent  is  so 
long  from  north  to  south  that  our  nearest  neighbor.  South 
America,  is  a  great  distance  away  from  our  northern  ports. 

Europe,  on  the  contrary,  is  a  part  of  the  greatest  land 
mass  in  the  world,  where  all  the  oldest  civilizations  have 
developed.  Long  before  America  was  discovered,  overland 
journeys  to  China  and  India  were  made.  Only  the  inland 
waters  of  the  Mediterranean  lay  between  southern  Europe 
and  the  civilization  of  Egypt.  At  the  eastern  end  of  this 
long  sea  stretched  Phoenicia,  the  country  of  the  earliest 
sailors,  and  just  beyond  lay  the  land  where  the  ancient 
Babylonians  and  Persians  lived  in  luxury  ages  before  any- 
thmg  was  known  of  a  land  beyond  the  western  sea,  or 
indeed  before  any  one  ventured  far  upon  its  waters.  Civi- 
lization surrounded  Europe,  and  the  small  size  of  the 
continent,  the  navigable  rivers,  and  the  deep  indentations 
of  the  coast  line  stimulated  communication  with  the  coun- 
tries around. 

Europe  lies  farther  north  than  the  United  States,  but  it 
seems  as  if  Nature  had  tried  in  many  ways  to  modify  the 
long,  cold  winters  which  are  usual  in  such  latitudes,  and 
which  are  such  a  hindrance  to  commerce  and  to  many 
kinds  of  manufactures. 


INTRODUCTION  3 

Throughout  the  temperate  zone  westerly  winds  prevail. 
If  you  were  to  keep  a  record  of  the  direction  of  the  wind 
every  day  for  several  years,  you  would  find  out  in  summing 
up  your  results  that,  for  the  greater  part  of  the  time,  it  blows 
from  some  quarter  of  the  west.  These  westerly  winds  blow 
across  the  Atlantic  Ocean  toward  Europe.  The  ocean  has 
a  much  more  even  temperature  than  the  land ;  it  is  warmer 
in  winter  and  cooler  in  summer.  People  like  to  spend  their 
summers  near  the  water  because  it  is  cooler  there.  In 
the  winter  the  low  temperatures  which  we  hear  of  in  the 
northern  interior  states  of  our  country  are  seldom  heard 
of  in  the  shore  states  in  the  same  latitude.  The  winds  that 
blow  over  the  Atlantic  Ocean  toward  Europe  carry  this 
even  temperature  to  the  western  shores  of  that  continent 
Thus  the  winters  of  western  Europe  are  much  less  cola 
than  they  would  be  if  the  direction  of  the  wind  were 
reversed,  and  the  summers  are  not  nearly  so  hot. 

Doubtless  you  have  read  of  that  warm  ocean  current,  the 
Gulf  Stream,  and  have  traced  its  course  from  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  out  across  the  Atlantic  Ocean  in  a  northeasterly 
direction.  The  warm  air  from  over  this  current  makes  the 
westerly  winds  even  warmer  than  they  otherwise  would  be, 
and  their  effect  on  European  countries  is  very  marked. 
England,  in  the  latitude  of  southern  Labrador  with  its  short 
summers  and  long,  cold  winters,  seldom  sees  snow.  Norway, 
as  far  north  as  Greenland,  has  no  icebound  ports  on  its 
western  coast.  As  the  winds  blow  farther  and  farther  over 
the  land  they  lose  their  modifying  effects,  and  in  the  eastern 
half  of  the  continent  we  find  greater  extremes  of  heat 
and  cold.  The  Neva  River  and  the  canal  which  leads 
from  Petrograd  to  Kronstadt  are  frozen  for  many  weeks  in 


4  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 

the  winter,  while  the  port  of  Bergen  on  the  west  coast  of 
Norway  is  never  closed  by  ice.  In  Russia,  in  the  same 
latitude  as  that  of  southern  England,  where  the  grass  re- 
mains green  through  the  winter,  many  of  the  French  army, 
during  their  invasion  of  the  country,  perished  with  cold  in 
a  temperature  of  several  degrees  below  zero.  The  summers 
of  Russia  are  correspondingly  hot,  and  the  thermometer 
often  registers  more  than  one  hundred  degrees. 

The  ocean  winds  also  have  another  beneficial  effect  upon 
Europe  in  the  abundant  rainfall  which  they  bring.  The 
winds  which  blow  from  the  Pacific  Ocean  upon  the  western 
coast  of  the  United  States  do  not  affect  either  the  tempera- 
ture or  the  rainfall  of  the  country  far  from  the  coast.  This 
is  because  the  lofty  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains  extend  from 
north  to  south  across  their  path,  and  cause  most  of  the 
moisture  to  fall  on  their  western  slopes.  In  Europe  there 
is  no  great  north  and  south  mountain  system  such  as  is 
found  in  North  America.  On  the  contrary,  the  principal 
highland  extends  from  east  to  west  through  the  central  part 
of  the  continent.  Thus  it  presents  no  barrier  to  the  mois- 
ture-laden winds,  which  deposit  their  life-giving  load  ver}'" 
liberally  through  western  and  central  Europe  and  more  spar- 
ingly through  the  portions  of  the  continent  farther  east. 

Though  the  easterly  and  westerly  direction  of  the  chief 
highland  does  not  greatly  affect  the  rainfall  of  Europe,  it 
does  have  a  remarkable  effect  in  another  way.  The  warm 
winds  from  the  Mediterranean  Sea  cannot  easily  climb  this 
barrier  and  spread  northward,  but  are  confined  to  the 
southern  portion  of  the  continent  and  distribute  their  heat 
throughout  those  countries.  In  a  similar  way  the  great 
mountain  barrier  shuts  out  the  cold  arctic  winds  which 


INTRODUCTION 


sweep  down  over  the  northern  plahis.  Thus,  southern 
Europe,  though  much  farther  north  than  our  Southern 
States,  has  a  more  tropical  climate.  Naples  is  in  about  the 
same  latitude  as  Pittsburgh,  Pennsylvania,  but  its  climate  is 
very  different.  In  the  vicinity  of  Naples,  oranges,  lemons, 
and  olives  are  raised,  and  mulberry  trees  are  cultivated  for 
the  silkworms ;  none  of 
these  products  can  be 
raised  successfully  in 
Pennsylvania.  Many  of 
the  houses  of  Naples 
are  built  with  no  pro- 
vision for  heating ;  the 
people  of  Pennsylvania 
would  be  very  uncom- 
fortable in  winter  if  it 
were  not  for  their  stoves 
and  furnaces. 

Besides  its  influence 
on  the  climate,  the  sur- 
face of  Europe  affects 
the  life  of  the  countries 
in  other  important  ways* 
It  furnishes  one  of  the 
chief  reasons  why  the  people  are  divided  into  so  many 
different  nations.  The  British  Isles  are  entirely  separated 
from  the  rest  of  the  continent  by  water.  The  Spanish  pen- 
insula is  nearly  surrounded  b}-  arms  of  the  ocean,  its  only 
land  boundary  being  the  lofty  Pyrenees  Mountains,  which 
form  a  high  wall  between  it  and  France.  Except  in  the 
desolate,  frozen  north  the  Scandinavian  peninsula  is  cut 


)  Underwood  &  Underwood 

Fig.  1.    St.  Bernard  Pass 


6 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  —  EUROPE 


off  from  the  rest  of  the  continent  by  water,  while  the  Kiolen 
Mountams,  the  backbone  of  the  peninsula,  separate  Norway 
from  Sweden.  Switzerland  nestles  by  itself  in  the  moun- 
tains, and  Italy  is  separated  from  its  northern  neighbors 
and  the  rest  of  Europe  by  the  snowy  ranges  of  the  Alps. 
To  the  people  of  olden  times  the  high  mountains  were 
a  more  impassable  barrier  than  the  water,  and  so,  living  by 


EiG.  2.   The  Italian  Village  of  Iselle  at  the  End  of  the 

SiMPLON  Tunnel 

itself,  each  nation  developed  its  own  language  and  customs. 
To-day  mountains  are  not  impassable  barriers  to  conununi- 
cation.  Roads  over  them  and  tunnels  under  them  bring  the 
people  on  both  sides  into  close  touch  with  each  other. 

The  longest  tunnel  in  the  world,  the  Simplon,  is  one  of 
several  which  extend  under  the  Alps  and  connect  central 
and  southern  Europe.    For  some  years  the  oldest  tunnel, 


INTRODUCTIOX  7 

the  Mont  Cenis,  eight  miles  long,  furnished  a  direct  route 
for  traffic  between  England,  France,  and  Italy.  Later  the 
St.  Gotthard  Tunnel,  nine  miles  in  length,  furnished  an 
easy  means  of  communication  between  Central  Europe 
and  the  Mediterranean  countries.  The  Arlberg,  six  and 
one-half  miles  long,  came  next.  Now  the  Simplon  Tunnel, 
twelve  miles  in  length,  extending  between  the  Swiss  town 
of  Brieg  and  the  small  Italian  village  of  Iselle,  furnishes 
a  more  direct  route  than  the  others.  The  construction  of 
the  tunnel  was  a  great  undertaking,  but  it  was  built  more 
rapidly  and  at  a  lower  cost  per  mile  than  any  then  existing. 
One  writer  describes  the  building  of  ''  this  great  wormhole 
under  the  Alps "  in  the  following  words :  ''  Two  million 
charges  of  dynamite,  sixteen  million  dollars,  four  thousand 
Italian  laborers,  six  years  of  work,  and  a  dozen  or  so  heads 
of  the  best  engineering  brains  in  Europe." 

A  hundred  years  ago  Napoleon  dragged  his  army  on  foot 
over  the  Simplon  Pass,  more  than  seven  thousand  feet  high, 
by  means  of  a  road  which  he  built  with  great  hardship, 
suffering,  and  loss  of  life.  To-day,  through  this  great  hole 
in  the  earth,  made  at  a  cost  of  one  and  one-third  million 
dollars  per  mile,  we  can  ride  in  comfortable  cars  from  one 
side  of  the  Alps  to  the  other  in  as  many  minutes  as  it  took 
hours  for  Napoleon's  soldiers. 

The  building  of  this  tunnel  was  a  grand  victory  of  rail- 
road engineering.  The  temperature  at  times  ran  up  to  more 
than  one  hundred  thirty  degrees,  and  the  workmen  had  to 
be  supplied  from  overhead  pipes  with  fresh  air  which  was 
cooled  by  water  from  the  Rhone  glacier. 

Beds  of  soft  rock  that  caved  in  as  fast  as  dug  out 
hindered  the  workers,  and  through  this  formation,  for  nearly 


8 


INDUSTRIAL   STUDIES  —  EUROPE 


a  year,  the  tunnel  advanced  only  about  six  yards  a  month. 
At  one  place  an  underground  lake  of  boilmg  water  was 
accidentally  tapped,  and  the  men  had  to  flee  for  their  lives 
before  a  stream  which  rushed  into  the  tunnel  at  the  rate  of 
eight  thousand  gallons  a  minute.  But  the  work  went  on 
in  spite  of  all  these  obstacles,  and  on  February  24,  1905, 


Fig.  3.   Taking  Care  of  the  Baby  in  Jugoslavia 

the  two  borings  from  the  Swiss  and  Italian  ends  exactly 
met  more  than  a  mile  below  the  summit  of  the  pass,  and 
the  gigantic  task  was  accomplished. 

The  natural  advantages  which  Europe  possesses,  how- 
ever, far  outweigh  the  disadvantages  of  mountain  barriers 
and  separated  peoples,  for  these  have  been  largely  overcome 
by  the  ingenuity  of  man.  The  coast  line  of  Europe  has  helped 
greatly  in  the  development  of  the  continent.  It  is  so  long 
and  so  much  indented  that  if  you  were  to  follow  all  its  wind- 
ings for  its  entire  length,  you  would  travel  a  distance  more 
than  twice  as  great  as  the  circumference  of  the  earth  at  the 


INTRODUCTION  9 

equator.  This  is  more  —  in  proportion  to  its  size  —  than 
that  possessed  by  any  other  continent,  and  this  fact  has  had 
a  tremendous  effect  on  the  development  of  Europe.  The 
inland  seas,  the  gulfs,  and  the  bays  extend  far  into  the  in- 
terior, so  that  all  the  countries,  with  the  exception  of  some 
parts  of  Russia,  have  easy  communication  with  the  ocean. 

Perhaps  none  of  the  physical  features  of  a  continent 
affect  the  welfare  of  the  people,  their  occupations,  and 
particularly  their  commerce  more  than  the  rivers.  Europe 
is  as  fortunate  in  this  respect  as  in  her  other  natural 
features,  for  she  has  many  rivers,  and  most  of  them  are 
navigable.  The  mterior  of  the  continent  is  thus  opened,  and 
communication  with  the  coast  and  with  other  continents 
is  made  easy.  Contrast  this  condition  with  that  of  Africa. 
There  all  the  important  rivers  except  the  Nile  break 
through  mountain  ranges  near  the  coast,  and  the  rapids 
and  falls  thus  formed  have  made  it  impossible  to  explore 
the  interior  by  means  of  rivers.  This  one  obstacle  delayed 
the  opening  of  the  Dark  Contment  for  many  years. 

IVIost  of  the  European  rivers  are  short  compared  with 
those  of  North  America,  only  one  being  over  two  thousand 
miles  long,  while  in  our  continent  more  than  half  a  dozen 
have  a  greater  length.  In  Europe  there  are  only  four  rivers 
of  more  than  one  thousand  miles,  while  North  America  has 
nearly  three  times  that  number. 

■  There  are  many  more  canals  in  Europe  than  in  North 
America,  and  they  furnish  thousands  of  miles  of  additional 
water  communication.  Some  countries  have  a  complete 
network  of  canals,  which  bring  all  portions  of  the  territory 
into  close  touch  with  the  rivers  and  seaports.  Holland,  Bel- 
gium, France,  England,  and  Russia  are  foremost  among  the 


10 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  —  EUROPE 


countries  having  fine  canal  systems,  while  the  other  nations 
have  developed  theirs  to  a  less  extent.  It  is  said  that  one 
can  go  anywhere  in  Holland  by  canal  if  one  only  takes 
time  enough,  and  it  is  possible  to  go  across  the  immense 


©  Kevstoiiu  View  Co. 


Fig.  4.    A  Scene  in  Holland 


area  of  Russia  from  north  to  south  and  from  east  to  west 
entirely  by  water. 

Much  of  the  benefit  derived  from  the  rivers  of  Europe 
is  due  to  the  surface  of  the  continent.  The  eastward  and 
westward  trend  of  the  mountains  sends  many  important 


INTRODUCTION  11 

rivers  flowing  clown  the  long  slopes  across  the  great  plain 
of  Europe  to  northern  waters,  while  swifter  streams  make 
their  way  down  the  short,  steep  southern  slopes  to  the 
Mediterranean  Sea.  The  headwaters  of  some  of  these  rivers, 
as  the  Rhine,  the  Rhone,  and  the  Danube,  come  very  near  to 
each  other.  These  three  important  streams  are  connected 
by  canals,  and  the  same  is  true  of  other  northward  and 
southward  flowing  rivers.  Tlius  communication  of  northern 
countries  and  seas  with  southern  Europe  and  the  Mediter- 
ranean is  made  easy. 

It  is  in  the  great  plain  of  Russia  that  the  longest  rivers 
are  found.  Some  of  these  Russian  rivers,  however,  are  of 
little  use,  because  they  are  frozen  much  of  the  year.  Most 
of  them  rise  in  the  Valdai  Hills,  the  only  elevation  in 
the  interior  of  Russia,  the  other  mountains  being  on  its 
borders.  You  will  become  better  acquainted  with  many 
of  the  rivers  of  Europe  when  visiting  the  different  countries, 
so  we  will  not  attempt  further  description  of  them  here. 

The  people  of  Europe,  no  less  than  the  continent  itself, 
are  in  many  ways  different  from  those  of  North  America. 
Although  most  Europeans  are  of  the  white  race  and  are 
really  the  ancestors  of  the  people  on  this  side  of  the  Atlantic, 
among  them  we  find  great  differences  in  conditions  of  life, 
in. customs,  in  ideals,  and  hi  government. 

The  governments  of  the  nations  of  tlie  world  arc  divided 
into  monarchies  and  republics.  A  monarchy  is  ruled  by 
a  person  called  a  king  or  queen,  an  emperor  or  empress, 
or  some  other  title.  Such  rulers  usually  inherit  their  posi- 
tion by  right  of  birth,  while  in  a  republic  the  ruler  is  elected 
by  the  people.  jNIonarehies  have  been  of  two  kinds.  An 
absolute    monarchy   is    so    called    because    the    ruler    had 


12 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 


unlimited,  or  absolute,  power  and  could  do  what  he  pleased 
with  his  subjects.  If  the  ruler  was  kind  and  mtelligent, 
his  people  might  fare  well ;  if  he  was  cruel  and  tyrannical, 
their  sufferings  might  be  horrible.  There  are  no  abso- 
lute monarchies  to-day  in  Europe,  or,  indeed,  in  any  other 

continent  of  the  world. 
In  a  limited  mon- 
archy the  ruler's  power 
is  so  limited  by  a  parlia- 
ment, or  some  similar 
body,  that  he  may  have 
no  more  authority  than 
has  the  president  of  the 
United  States. 

Before  the  World  War 
there  were  only  three 
republics  in  Europe,  — 
France  and  little  Swit- 
zerland and  Portugal. 
All  the  other  countries 

were     monarchies.      In 
Fig.  5.   A  Little  Tartar  Bot  ^^^^^^  ^^  ^^^^^^  European 

Courtesy  of  Mr.  B.  E.  Baker,  Boston  ^^^^,,^,^1,^^^     the     people 

had  less  voice  in  the  government  and  fewer  rights  and 
privileges  than  they  would  have  in  a  republic.  One  of 
the  great  results  of  the  war  was  to  give  more  freedom  to 
the  people,  and  to  prevent  their  oppression  by  tyrannical 
governments.  Out  of  the  terrible  sufferings  caused  by  the 
four  years  of  war  several  new  nations  have  been  born 
of  which  you  will  read  in  later  chapters.  Can  you  tell 
whether  these  nations  are  monarchies  or  republics? 


INTRODUCTION  13 

No  other  war  ever  changed  the  maps  of  the  world  so 
much  as  did  the  great  conflict  of  1914-1918.  Not  only 
the  map  of  Europe  but  those  also  of  Asia  and  Africa  are 
different  from  what  they  were  before  the  peace  treaty  was 
signed.  To  find  out  how  great  these  changes  are,  you  must 
study  both  the  old  and  new  maps.  Learn  what  countries 
have  disappeared  from  the  map  of  Europe,  what  ones  have 
grown  smaller,  what  ones  larger,  from  what  ones  the  new 
nations  have  been  made. 

Peasant  life  in  Europe  is  very  different  in  many  respects 
from  that  of  the  poorer  people  in  our  country.  The  peasants 
in  many  regions  do  not  dress  like  the  people  of  higher 
rank,  but  have  their  own  typical  costumes.  Their  food, 
too,  is  quite  different  from  that  of  the  upper  classes.  They 
do  not  have  cheaper  foods  of  the  same  kind,  —  cheaper  cuts 
of  meat,  similar  puddings  and  pastry,  —  but  eat  their  own 
simple  meal  of  coarse,  nourishing  bread,  soup,  fish,  and 
vegetables.  Meat  is  seldom  seen  on  their  tables,  but  they 
make  wholesome  foods  out  of  materials  which  many  of  our 
more  wasteful  housekeepers  would  think  of  no  use. 

In  our  country  any  one,  even  the  poorest  or  the  most 
ignorant,  can  by  hard  work,  education,  and  persistence 
rise  from  the  lowest  place  in  a  factory  to  that  of  manager, 
or  from  office  boy  to  the  position  of  president  of  some 
great  corporation.  In  the  past  such  upward  climbing  has 
been  almost  unknown  in  European  countries.  In  most 
cases  a  peasant  has  followed  the  same  occupation  that  his 
father  and  grandfather  before  him  followed,  and  lived  and 
dressed  in  the  same  way.  Often  this  life  was  comfortable 
and  happy,  often  it  was  not,  but  it  was  the  way  of  his 
class  and  he  followed  it  without  a  thought  of  there  being 


14 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 


anything  else  to  do.  With  better  government,  with  more 
education,  and  with  larger  rights  and  privileges  there  will  be 
greater  opportunity  for  the  common  people  of  Europe,  like 
boys  and  girls  in  the  United  States,  to  make  what  they  will 
out  of  their  lives  and  to  occupy  those  positions  for  which  they 
are  willing  by  hard  work  and  right  living  to  fit  themselves. 

We  have  spoken  of  the  peasants  more  than  of  the  higher 
classes  because  industrially  they  are  the  more  important. 
They  form  the  greater  part  of  the  population  in  Europe 
and  carry  on  most  of  the  work.  Their  occupations  are  for 
the  most  part  much  the  same  as  in  our  country.  They  till 
the  soil,  raise  livestock,  engage  in  fishing,  mining,  and 
manufacturing.  As  in  the  United  States,  agriculture  is 
the  most  important  of  all  these  pursuits,  and  occupies  the 
majority  of  people  in  most  of  the  European  countries. 

You  are  anxious  to  visit  this  land  from  which  tlie 
settlers  of  our  country  came.  So  with  this  introduction 
to  the  continent  across  the  water,  we  will  go  on  board  our 
steamer  which  is  waiting  beside  the  pier  in  New  York 
harbor. 


TOPICS  FOR  STUDY 
I 


1.  Importance  of  Europe. 

2.  Size. 

3.  Situation  of  Europe. 

4.  Climate  and  rainfall. 

5.  Surface. 


6.  Tunnels. 

7.  Drainage  and  canals. 

8.  Governments. 

9.  Maj)  changes. 
10.  Peasant  customs. 


II 

1.  Name  the  continents  in  order  of  size. 

2.  What  countries  fought  in  the  World  "War  on  the  side  of  the 
Allies;  of  the  Central  Powers? 


INTRODUCTION  15 

3.  Find  the  area  and  the  population  of  Belgium,  Russia,  England, 
Germany,  and  the  United  States.  Find  the  average  number  of  people 
to  a  square  mile  in  each  country.  How  does  the  United  States  com- 
pare in  density  of  population  with  the  European  countries  ?  How  does 
the  density  of  i)opulation  affect  the  industries  of  a  country? 

4.  Make  a  list  of  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  the  posi- 
tion of  the  United  States;  of  Europe. 

5.  Find  in  the  encyclopedia  or  in  some  ancient  history  some 
interesting  facts  about  Phoenicia ;  Babylon ;  ancient  Persia. 

6.  Sketch  a  map  showing  the  eastern  coast  of  North  America  and 
the  western  coast  of  Eurojie.  Trace  in  it  the  course  of  the  Gulf  Stream. 

7.  Write  a  list  of  the  states  crossed  by  the  Sierra  Nevada  Moun- 
tains. What  surface  division  of  the  United  States  lies  east  of  these 
mountains?  Describe  its  climate.  State  the  reason  for  the  lack  of 
rainfall. 

8.  Through  what  countries  of  Europe  does  the  chief  highland 
13ass?  What  countries  lie  to  the  north  of  it?  to  the  south  of  it? 
Write  the  names  of  any  ranges  of  this  highland  that  you  can  find 
given  on  the  map.  "Write  the  names  of  other  ranges  in  Europe. 
Locate  all  these  mountains. 

9.  Name  the  states  of  the  United  States  which  lie  in  the  same 
latitude  as  Greece  and  Italy. 

10.  What  waters  cut  off  the  Bi'itish  Isles  from  the  continent?  What 
waters  nearly  surround  the  Spanish  peninsula?  the  Scandinavian 
peninsula?    What  mountains  form  the  l)ackbone  of  this  peninsula? 

11.  Write  in  a  column  the  names  of  the  countries  of  Europe.  In 
another  cohinin  Avrite  whether  they  are  monarchies  or  republics. 
Put  a  cross  beside  the  new  countries  formed  since  the  war. 

12.  Sketch  a  .map  of  Switzerland  and  adjoining  countries  and 
show  the  location  of  four  great  Alpine  tunnels. 

13.  Name  the  river  of  Ein-oi:ie  which  is  more  than  two  thousand 
miles  long ;  those  that  are  more  than  one  thousand  miles  long. 
Sketch  a  map  and  trace  the  courses  of  these  rivers.  Through  what 
countries  does  each  one  pass  ? 

14.  Name  the  rivers  of  North  America  which  are  more  than  two 
thoiisand  miles  in  length ;  those  which  are  more  than  one  thousand 
miles.    Sketch  a  map  and  locate  them  all. 

15.  Name  the  rivers  of  Russia  which  are  of  the  least  use  for 
commerce  and  navigation ;  of  the  most  use. 

16.  Name  some  differences  between  Europe  and  North  America. 


16 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 


III 

Be  able  to  spell  and  pronounce  the  following  names.  Locate  each 
place  and  tell  what  was  said  of  it  in  the  chapter.  Add  other  facts 
if  possible. 


Africa 

Scandinavian  Peninsula 

Pyrenees  Mountains 

Asia 

South  America 

Sierra  Nevada  Mouu 

Australia 

Spain 

tains 

Belgium 

Sweden 

Simplon  Pass 

China 

Switzerland 

Valdai  Hills 

Egypt 

United  States 

England 

Danube  River 

France 

Babylon 

Gulf  of  Mexico 

Greenland 

Bergen 

Gulf  Stream 

Holland 

Brieg 

INIediterranean  Sea 

India 

Iselle 

Neva  River 

Italy 

Kronstadt 

Nile  River 

Labrador 

Naples 

Rhine  River 

Mexico 

New  York 

Rhone  River 

Norway 

Petrograd 

Persia 

Pittsburgh 

Arlberg  Tunnel 

Fhrenicia 

Mont  Cenis  Tunnel 

Portugal 

Alps  Mountains 

St.  Gotthard  Tunnel 

Russia 

Kiolen  Mountains 

Simplon  Tunnel 

CHAPTER  II 
SHIPS  AND   SHIPBUILDING 

At  the  pier  in  New  York  City  we  find  the  ocean  hner  on 
which  we  have  engaged  passage  for  Europe.  A  crowd  has 
gathered  on  the  wharf  to  say  good-by  to  friends  who  are 
going,  for  business  or  pleasure,  across  the  wide  ocean.  As 
the  great  ship  moves  slowly  away  from  the  wharf  her  rails 
are  lined  witli  people,  all  anxious  for  another  parting  word 
with  the  friends  left  behind. 

The  vessel  is  so  large  and  there  are  so  many  decks  that 
we  do  not  at  first  realize  how  many  people  there  are  on 
board.  It  is  reall}^  a  floatmg  town,  for  the  ship  accommo- 
dates between  two  and  three  thousand  passengers,  besides 
her  crew  of  eight  hundred. 

If  this  floating  town  were  on  land  instead  of  on  water, 
the  steel  contained  in  it  would  be  sufficient  to  supply  the 
framework  of  houses  for  all  the  passengers  and  crew.  Her 
steel  plates  would  surround  the  town  for  a  distance  of  eight 
or  ten  miles  with  a  wall  four  or  five  feet  high.  The  coal 
with  which  the  vessel  is  supplied  would  furnish  fuel  for 
the  inhabitants  for  several  months.  Her  electric  plant  would 
light  the  streets  and  the  houses,  and  her  engines  would  drive 
enough  machinery  to  employ  all  the  people.  Her  funnels 
would  be  large  enough  for  a  tunnel,  or  subway,  in  which  a 
double  line  of  trolley  cars  could  run.  The  grocery  and  pro- 
vision stores  of  the  town  could  be  well  stocked  with  the 

17 


18 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  —  EUROPE 


thousands  of  pounds  of  meat,  vegetables,  eggs,  flour,  butter, 
and  other  food  necessities  stored  away  on  the  great  liner. 

These  immense  ships  are  the  express  trains  of  the  ocean. 
They  cross  at  high  speed  and  follow  schedules  as  regular  as 
those  of  railroad  trains.   The  great  cargo  steamers,  carrying 


)  Underwood  &  Underwood 

Fig.  6.   "The  Great  Ship  moves  slowly  away  from  the  Wharf  " 

much  freight  and  many  passengers,  might  be  lilvened  to 
combination  freight  and  passenger  trains.  These  also  fol- 
low regular  schedules.  Besides  these  there  are  the  tramp 
steamers,  in  which  the  greater  part  of  the  world's  merchan- 
dise is  carried.  These  are  like  freight  cars,  which  are  seen 
at  one  time  on  the  tracks  of  one  railroad  and  at  another 


SHIPS  AND  SHIPBUILDING 


19 


time  on  those  of  some  other  road.  You  have  doubtless 
seen  at  the'  railroad  station  long  trains  made  up  of  cars 
from  a  dozen  different  railroads  whose  tracks  lie  many 
hundred  miles  away. 

Such  a  tramp  steamer  may  have  been  built  in  a  British 
shipyard  and  may  have  been  on  the  ocean  for  many  years 


Fig.  7.   Hek  Funnels  would  be  Lakge  enough  for  a  Subttat 
Courtesy  of  the  Cunard  Steamship  Company 

without  reentermg  the  port  from  which  it  started.  Could 
we  have  accompanied  it  on  its  wanderings,  we  should  have 
entered  many  a  foreign  harbor.  It  might  have  started 
originally  from  Liverpool  with  a  cargo  of  cotton  goods, 
tools,  and  machinery  bound  for  Hongkong.  There  it  took 
on  a  cargo  of  rice,  tea,  and  silk,  and  cleared  for  San  Fran- 
cisco.   It  went  without  cargo  from  that  city  to  Seattle,  and 


20  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  —  EUROPE 

there  loaded  with  lumber  for  Japan.  At  Yokohama  it  took 
on  tea,  raw  silk,  camphor,  and  fine  hand-wrought  articles 
in  metal  and  lacquer  ware  and  started  for  Marseille,  in 
France.  In  that  port  it  picked  up  a  cargo  of  wine,  silk, 
olives,  and  perfumery  for  New  York,  and  there  loaded  with 
machinery  for  Chile,  where  a  cargo  of  nitrates  was  obtained 
and  carried  to  San  Francisco. 

Tliink  of  the  many,  many  tramp  steamers  which  make 
their  way  from  country  to  country,  from  island  to  island, 
and  from  far-away,  almost  unknown,  harbors  to  the  great 
seaports  of  the  world ;  of  the  powerful  battleships,  cruisers, 
torpedo  boats,  and  colliers  which  every  nation  possesses  in 
her  navy ;  of  the  hundreds  and  thousands  of  schooners,  from 
the  small  fishing  craft  to  the  large  seven-masted  vessels  ca- 
pable of  carrying  heavy  cargoes.  Yet  besides  all  these  there 
are  coast  and  river  steamers,  yachts,  ferryboats,  oil-tank 
ships,  barges,  and  tugs,  to  say  nothing  of  the  smaller  pleasure 
boats  which  ply  on  rivers  and  lakes  all  over  the  world. 

Where  are  they  built  ?  Where  are  the  shipyards  of  the 
world  that  supply  these  ocean  carriers,  which  are  as  necessary 
to  the  world's  commerce  and  intercourse  as  are  the  trams, 
the  electric  cars,  and  the  motor  vans  that  run  on  land  ? 

The  United  States  is  one  of  the  greatest  shipbuilding 
nations  on  earth.  Another  place  where  many  ships  are  built 
is  the  British  Isles.  Before  the  World  War  there  were 
built  annually  in  the  waters  of  the  British  Isles  nearly  as 
many  vessels  as  were  put  together  in  all  other  shipyards 
of  the  world.  Because  of  her  w^ater  boundaries,  her  great 
commerce,  and  her  dependence  on  other  lands  for  raw 
materials  and  for  food  and  clothing,  the  shipyards  of  the 
British  Isles  surpass  all  others  in  Europe. 


L.l    PO*T£S  tMj,  Co.jN.y, 


SHIPS  AND  SHIPBUILDING 


21 


In  most  of  the  harbors  and  at  the  mouths  of  the  principal 
rivers  of  the  British  Isles  one  can  hear  the  clang  of  hammers 
and  the  noise  of  machinery,  and  can  see  the  skeletons  of 


©  Underwood  &  Underwood 

Fig.  8.    "The  Great  Shipyards  are  One  of  the  Sights  which  wb 
have  come  across  the  ocean  to  see  " 

vessels  growing  into  form  and  beauty.  There  are  shipyards 
of  more  or  less  importance  along  the  entire  length  of  the 
eastern  coast,  on  the  Tay,  Forth,  Tyne,  Wear,  Tees,  Hum- 
ber,  and  Thames  rivers,  from  Aberdeen  in  the  north  to  the 


22  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 

English  Channel  on  the  south.  On  the  Channel  there  are 
shipyards  at  Cowes,  Southampton,  Dartmouth,  Falmouth, 
Portsmouth,  Devonport,  Chatham,  and  Pembroke.  At  the 
last  four  places  are  the  royal  dockyards,  which  do  little 
actual  building  but  a  great  deal  of  overhauling,  repairing, 
and  refitting  of  the  ships  of  the  navy.  Following  the  west- 
ern coast  we  find  shipyards  on  Bristol  Channel,  on  the  Mer- 
sey and  Solway  rivers,  across  the  Irish  Sea  in  Belfast,  and, 
last  but  by  no  means  least,  on  the  Clyde  River  in  Scotland. 

In  these  various  yards  are  built  all  kinds  of  seagoing 
craft.  One  yard  may  make  a  specialty  of  one  kind  and 
another  yard  of  another  kmd,  while  some  yards  build  a 
variety.  Grim,  powerful  war  vessels  ;  swift,  elegant  yachts ; 
fishing  craft  of  all  kinds ;  big  ocean  liners ;  tramps,  barges, 
tugs,  lighters,  colliers,  torpedo  and  submarine  boats  —  these 
and  many  others  are  constructed  every  year  in  the  yards  of 
this  great  shipbuilding  nation.  The  northeastern  coast  near 
the  Tyne  River,  the  northwestern  region  in  the  Clyde  Basin, 
and  the  Belfast  district  are  the  three  most  important  regions, 
and  the  only  three  which  build  vessels  of  over  ten  thousand 
tons.  With  few  exceptions  the  ocean-mail  service  of  the 
world  is  carried  on  by  vessels  built  in  one  or  another  of 
these  three  places. 

Some  of  the  largest  ocean  liners  are  constructed  at  Bel- 
fast, Ireland.  The  giants  of  the  White  Star  Line  —  the 
ill-fated  Titanic  and  her  sister  ship  the  Olympic  —  were 
built  in  the  yards  of  Belfast,  on  the  Lagan  River.  The 
Olympic  is  eight  hundred  eighty-two  feet  long.  Compare 
this  length  with  that  of  your  schoolhouse  and  find  out  how 
many  buildings  placed  end  to  end  would  equal  in  length 
this  immense  liner. 


SHIPS  AND  SHIPBUILDING 


23 


The  most  famous  of  all  shipbuilding  districts,  where  the 
greatest  number  and  the  largest  variety  of  craft  are  con- 
structed, is  on  the  Clyde  River  in  Scotland.  This  is  a  small 
river  to  be  so  famous,  less  than  one  hundred  miles  from 
source  to  mouth,  not  one  third  as  long  as  the  little  New 


Fig.  !».    Boilers  ok  the  Olympic 
Courtesy  of  the  White  Star  Steamship  Company 

England  river,  the  Connecticut.  It  is  formed  in  the  hills  of 
Scotland  by  small  streams  that  come  trickling  down  the 
heather-covered  slopes.  Over  a  series  of  falls  and  rapids 
the  little  river  leaps  and  sings  in  its  plunge  into  the  valley 
below.  Here  in  the  green,  fertile  meadows  fdled  with  apple 
orchards  famous  for  generations,  the  Clyde,  now  richer  by 
many  small  tributaries,  flows  gently  on  toward  the  place 


24  INDUSTRIAL   STUDIES  — EUROPE 

where  its  chief  work  for  mankind  begins.  At  one  place  it 
is  separated  from  the  Tweed  River  by  only  seven  miles. 
Geologists  tell  us  that  ages  ago  it  probably  bent  to  the  east 
and  joined  the  Tweed.  Had  it  not  been  for  the  slight 
change  of  level  wrought  by  the  great  force  of  nature, 
which  sent  the  little  river  on  its  course  to  the  west,  there 
would  have  been  no  port  of  Glasgow,  no  shipyards  on  the 
Clyde,  no  ocean  liners  and  mighty  warships  built  on  its 
banks. 

As  we  come  down  the  river  toward  Glasgow  the  smoke 
from  a  thousand  chimneys  shuts  out  the  blue  sky,  and  we 
know  we  are  approaching  the  coal  and  iron  region  of  Scot- 
land. These  mineral  deposits  extend  across  the  country  in  a 
northeasterly  direction  from  the  Clyde  Basin  to  the  Firth 
of  Forth.  It  is  due  to  these  deposits,  to  the  surface  of  the 
country,  and  to  the  rivers  that  this  part  of  Scotland  has 
become  an  important  industrial  and  commercial  center. 

The  northern  part  of  Scotland  consists  largely  of  high- 
lands, bare  and  rugged,  made  beautiful  l)y  the  blue,  misty 
light  that  always  hangs  over  them,  and  by  the  lakes,  or 
"  lochs,"  as  the  Scottish  people  call  them,  that  nestle  in 
every  glen. 

Near  the  southern  boundary  are  other  highlands,  lower 
and  not  so  beautiful,  of  which  one  range,  the  Cheviot  Hills, 
forms  a  partial  boundary  between  Scotland  and  England. 
Between  the  two  highlands  are  the  lowlands  of  Scotland, 
which,  though  they  comprise  only  one  sixth  of  the  area  of 
the  country,  have  made  possible  her  industrial  life.  Here 
are  the  rich  deposits  of  coal  and  iron,  the  fertile  farms,  the 
great  manufacturing  cities,  and  it  is  in  this  region  that  more 
than  half  of  the  people  of  Scotland  live. 


SHIPS  AND  SHIPBUILDING  25 

The  wonderful  lake  region  and  the  beautiful  wooded 
country  known  as  the  Trossachs,  which  are  visited  annually 
by  thousands  of  tourists,  together  with  some  of  the  more 
famous  mountains,  skirt  the  southern  edge  of  the  highlands. 
A  trip  from  Glasgow  to  Edinburgh  takes  one  through  this 
loA^ely  region  which  Sir  Walter  Scott  has  so  vividly  de- 
scribed in  "  The  Lady  of  the  Lake." 

No  one  can  pass  by  or  sail  on  Loch  Katrine  without 
appreciating  better  its  beauty  and  the  beauty  of  the  lines 
in  which  Scott  describes  it : 

And  thus  an  airy  point  he  won, 
Where,  gleaming  with  the  setting  sun. 
One  burnished  sheet  of  living  gold, 
Loch  Katrine  lay  beneath  him  rolled. 

The  lake,  once  queen  of  poetry,  has  now  become  the 
servant  of  industry,  for  the  city  of  Glasgow  has  taken  it  to 
serve  as  a  water  supply  and  has  built  an  aqueduct  more 
than  forty  miles  long  to  bring  the  pure  mountam  water 
to  the  city. 

Of  all  the  Scottish  lakes  Loch  Lomond  is  the  most  beauti- 
ful. It  is  long  and  winding  and  dotted  with  green  islands, 
where  deer  feed  in  the  dim  shade  of  the  trees.  Its  shores 
are  adorned  with  beautiful  country  residences  half  hidden 
in  green  foliage.  To  the  north  rises  the  bold  outline  of 
Ben  Lomond,  softened  by  the  gray  mists  that  hang  low  on 
the  slopes  purple  with  heather. 

The  wide  mouth  of  the  Forth  River,  with  its  busy  port 
of  Leith  and  with  the  city  of  Edinburgli  near  by,  con- 
nects the  lowlands  of  Scotland  with  the  North  Sea  and 
the  continent  of  Europe.  The  deep  inlet  of  the  Clyde  River 
is  the  passageway  westward  to  the  ocean  and  the  world 


26 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  —  EUROPE 


beyond.  Situated  on  the  Clyde,  just  where  it  narrows  too 
much  for  navigation,  lies  Glasgow,  with  great  stores  of  min- 
eral wealth  on  the  east  and  the  waters  of  river  and  sea  and 
ocean  opening  toward  the  west.  No  wonder  that  the  city  has 


f^'  Ke}-6loTit  \'iew  Co. 

Fig.  10.    "Of  All  the  Scottish  Lakes  Loch  Lomond  is  the 

MOST  Beautiful  " 

spent  millions  of  dollars  in  deepening  and  improving  the 
Clyde,  for  on  this  small  river  most  of  her  commerce  depends. 
Originally  it  was  but  a  shallow  stream.  To-day,  except  at 
low  tide,  the  largest  ocean  steamers  can  ascend  to  the  city. 


SHIPS  AND  SHIPBUILDING  27 

Glasgow,  with  its  broad,  straight  streets  and  massive 
gray  stone  buildings,  is  a  typical  Scotch  city.  It  impresses 
one  as  being  grave  and  dignified  like  the  true  Scotchman. 
Like  him,  too,  it  is  reserved.  One  cannot  become  thoroughly 
acquainted  with  it  or  learn  all  its  secrets  in  a  day  or  a  week. 
In  order  to  realize  its  greatness  one  must  have  intimate 
knowledge  of  this  city,  which,  in  commerce  and  trade,  ranks 
first  in  Scotland  and  second  in  the  British  Isles. 

Its  manufactures  also  are  very  important.  As  you  may 
imagine,  some  of  these  are  connected  with  iron  and  steel  and 


Fig.  11.   The  Mauketaxia^  and  thk  Capitol  at  Washington 

Courtesy  of  the  Cunard  Steamship  Company 

many  with  the  shipbuilding  industry.  The  textile  manufac- 
tures also  rank  high.  There  is  much  spinning  and  weaving, 
as  well  as  bleaching,  dyeing,  and  calico  printing. 

At  the  busy  quay  of  the  city  we  can  take  a  small  steamer 
for  the  part  of  the  river  known  in  Glasgow  as  "  Doon  the 
Water."  This  is  where  the  Clyde  widens  into  the  sea  and 
is  a  maze  of  peninsulas,  sea  lochs,  and  islands.  This  part 
of  the  river,  with  its  green,  winding  shores,  is  very  beautiful. 
Long  inlets  extending  in  toward  the  hills  are  fringed  with 
pleasant  villages  and  towns  or  decorated  with  villas  and 
beautiful  country  houses  set  deep  in  the  wooded  slopes. 


28  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  —  EUROPE 

Many  people  from  Glasgow  have  their  summer  homes  here, 
and  thousands  of  pleasure  seekers  crowd  the  steamers  on 
every  summer  holiday  and  week-end. 

Between  this  lovely  river  mouth  and  the  city  of  Glasgow 
lies  the  busiest  part  of  the  Clyde  River;  indeed,  it  is  the 
busiest  and  most  crowded  district  of  river  industry  to  be 
found  anywhere  in  Europe.  On  either  bank  loom  the  skel- 
etons of  great  ships  in  all  stages  of  completion.  The  facto- 
ries, engines,  shops,  gas  tanks,  warehouses,  and  giant  cranes 
rise  in  a  confused  mass.  Engines  toot,  steamers  whistle, 
foundries  roar,  bells  clang,  and  tugs  shriek.  All  around  are 
forests  of  masts,  funnels,  and  chimneys.  This  is  the  birthplace 
of  ocean  liners  and  racing  yachts,  of  tugs  and  tramps,  of  fish- 
ing dories  and  seven-masted  schooners,  of  revenue  cutters 
and  river  steamers,  of  excursion  boats  and  grim  war  vessels. 

In  the  Clyde  district  there  are  hundreds  of  thousands  of 
workmen  representing  many  trades — architects,  draftsmen, 
carpenters  and  joiners,  masons,  calkers,  steam  fitters,  engi- 
neers, molders,  ironworkers,  electricians,  platers,  riveters, 
pamters,  pattern  makers,  plumbers,  blacksmiths,  and  many 
others. 

Here,  too,  is  some  of  the  most  wonderful  machinery 
which  has  ever  been  invented.  See  that  giant  crane  liftmg 
a  smokestack  large  enough  for  a  double  row  of  electric  cars 
to  stand  inside  of  it  without  touching  each  other  or  the 
sides  of  the  stack.  The  great  load  rises  high  in  the  air, 
hovers  a  moment  like  a  huge  bird  poising  on  the  wing,  and 
then  descends  slowly  into  the  very  place  made  for  it  in  the 
partially  constructed  vessel.  Another  crane  grasps  a  huge 
engine  in  its  jaws,  raises  it,  and  then  lowers  it  into  place  as 
easily  as  a  boy  picks  up  a  stone. 


SHirS  AND  SriIPBUILDIXG 


29 


More  than  one  thousand  horses  would  be  needed  to  draw 
the  millions  of  rivets  which  are  used  in  an  ocean  liner. 
The  smaller  rivets  are  fixed  by  hand,  and  the  noise  of 
the  hammering  is  deafening.  The  larger  ones  are  fastened 
by  power.  A  machme  picks  up  a  red-hot  rivet  weighing 
perhaps  a  couple  of  pounds  and  puts  it  into  the  proper 


Fig.  12.    "What  a  Tremendous  Task  is  the  Building  of  a 

Big  Ship!" 
Courtesy  of  the  Cunard  Steamship  Company 

hole.  Then  the  monster  jaws  close  on  either  side  of  the 
plate.  When  they  open  again,  the  crushed,  rounded  head 
of  the  rivet  is  seen  securely  binding  together  the  heavy 
steel  sheets. 

What  a  tremendous  task  is  the  building  of  a  big  ship  I 
When  the  order  is  given,  the  vessel  must  first  be  born  in 
the  mind  of  the  master.    No  ship,  no  building,  no  machine 


30  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  —  EUROPE 

is  ever  made  until  it  exists  in  the  human  mind.  Then 
comes  the  making  of  the  plans,  the  transferring  of  the 
mental  dream  from  brain  to  paper.  This  work  may  take 
weeks  or  even  months,  for  the  planning  of  a  great  ship  is 
no  light  task. 

There  must  be  no  guesswork  in  its  construction.  The 
builder  must  know  the  exact  size  of  each  part,  which  will 
give  the  greatest  strength  and  speed  and  yet  occupy  the 
least  room.  He  cannot  build  as  he  would,  but  must  work 
within  certain  limits.  If  he  increases  the  size  of  the  engines 
so  that  the  ship  may  make  greater  speed,  there  may  not  be 
room  enough  left  for  coal  to  run  them,  for  passengers,  and 
for  freight.  If  the  vessel  is  too  wide  it  will  not  make  speed  ; 
if  too  deep,  it  will  not  float  in  the  great  harbors  of  the  world. 
Certain  proportions  of  breadth,  length,  depth,  and  weight 
must  be  carefully  kept  throughout  the  work. 

The  dream  of  the  master  mind  must  be  worked  out  in 
accurate,  definite  plans,  down  to  the  smallest  detail,  before 
any  work  on  the  actual  construction  of  the  ship  is  begun. 
Every  item  of  space  and  dimension  must  be  carefully  de- 
cided upon.  Every  part  of  the  huge  hulk  must  be  adjusted 
and  balanced  so  that  it  will  ride  the  waters  evenly  and  plow 
its  long  furrow  in  the  ocean  with  the  least  resistance. 

The  making  of  the  plans  may  take  a  score  of  draftsmen 
several  months.  When  they  are  finally  completed,  the  lines 
to  show  the  exact  size  and  shape  of  the  vessel  are  laid  down 
on  the  great  floor  of  what  is  known  as  the  molding  loft. 
Soon  carloads  of  plates  and  beams  begin  to  arrive  from  shops 
and  foundries,  and  are  stored  in  the  yard  near  the  slip  where 
the  vessel  is  to  be  built.  Some  of  the  plates  on  an  ocean 
liner  are  more  than  thirty  feet  long  and  weigh  two  or  three 


SHIPS  AND  SHIPBUILDING  31 

tons  each.  To  press  them  into  the  desu-ed  shape  they  are 
fed  into  a  gigantic  steel  roller  in  much  the  same  way  that 
clothes  are  fed  into  a  clothes  wringer.  A  machine  which 
cuts  the  hard  steel  as  easily  as  a  child  snips  a  piece  of  cloth 
trims  the  edges  of  the  plates. 

In  the  meantime  the  keel  has  been  laid,  and  the  great 
ribs  —  the  framework  which  gives  the  vessel  its  shape  — 
have  been  placed  in  position.  The  making  of  the  ribs  is  an 
interesting  process.  They  come  from  the  foundry  m  straight 
beams,  which  must  be  heated  and  bent  into  the  curves  of 
the  ship's  side.  The  heatmg  is  done  in  immense  furnaces 
long  enough  to  hold  the  longest  rib  of  a  great  ship.  On  the 
iron  floor  full  of  holes  the  workmen  have  outlmed  the  curve 
of  the  rib  by  fitting  strong  iron  pins  into  the  holes.  xVt  the 
right  minute  the  furnace  door  is  opened  and  a  man,  in  the 
blmding  glare  and  intense  heat,  fastens  a  strong  cable  to 
the  white-hot  metal.  Other  workmen  now  bend  their  muscles 
to  the  work,  and  with  strong  cables  drag  the  hot  steel  timber 
from  the  furnace  to  its  place  on  the  floor.  The  men  hammer 
and  pound  and  strain,  drive  in  new  pegs  and  remove  others, 
until  the  huge  steel  beam  lies  dull  and  cold  in  the  graceful 
curves  of  the  ship's  rib. 

After  the  skeleton  frame  of  the  decks  and  the  beams  to 
support  them  have  been  laid,  the  outside  sheathing  of  steel 
plates  is  put  on.  The  drawings  from  which  these  plates  are 
made  must  be  very  accurate,  as  the  plates  arc  finished  in 
the  shops,  even  to  the  rivet  holes,  which  must  fit  in  exactly 
the  right  place  when  the  great  steel  sheets  are  fastened 
upon  the  ship's  side. 

In  the  building  of  an  ocean  liner  a  thousand  men  may  be 
at  work  on  the  huge  frame  at  the  same  time.    Yet  so  large 


32 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  —  EUROPE 


is  the  ship  and  so  varied  are  the  occupations  that  no  one 
interferes  with  the  work  of  another. 

When  the  ship  is  nearly  completed  the  launching  takes 
place.  It  is  a  wonderful  sight  to  see  the  monster  ghde 
slowly  down  from  her  slip  into  the  water,  and  many  and 


Fig.  13.   The  Uklax  Uattleship  North  Dakota,  after  its 

Launching 
Courtesy  of  the  Fore  River  Shipbuilding  Company 

costly  preparations  have  to   be   made   in   order   that  the 
journey  of  a  few  seconds  shall  be  successful. 

From  this  description  of  the  giant  steamships  and  of  the 
labor  and  material  necessary  to  build  one  you  can  imagine 
that  their  cost  must  be  very  large.  The  Olympic  cost  about 
ten  milHon  dollars,  and  the  Lusitania  and  the  Mauretania 
between  seven  and  eight  millions  each.    Yet,  great  as  is  the 


SHIPS  AND   SHIPBUILDING  33 

expense  of  building  an  ocean  liner,  this  is  not  the  only  thing 
to  be  thought  of  in  her  construction.  No  building  erected  on 
land  has  the  safety  of  its  occupants  more  carefully  looked 
after  than  that  of  the  passengers  and  crew  of  a  big  ship. 

Most  liners  to-day  are  fitted  with  two  bottoms  several 
feet  apart,  so  that  if  hidden  rocks  damage  the  outer  one,  the 
inner  one  keeps  the  vessel  water-tight.  All  large,  modern 
ships  are  divided  into  compartments  by  huge  steel  doors 
which  can  be  closed  at  a  minute's  warning.  If  several  of 
these  compartments  are  damaged  and  till  with  water,  the 
others,  being  water-tight,  are  amply  sufficient  to  keep  the 
vessel  afloat.  On  the  captain's  bridge  right  at  his  hand  are 
devices  to  enable  him,  without  a  second's  delay,  to  stop  the 
vessel,  to  give  the  fire  alarm,  to  close  the  bulkheads  between 
the  compartments,  and  to  give  otiier  signals  to  insure  the 
safety  of  the  vessel  and  tlie  protection  of  the  passengers. 

Perhaps  the  greatest  safety  device  of  modern  times  is 
that  of  wireless  telegraphy.  Is  it  not  wonderful  that  a  ship 
far  out  in  mid-ocean,  with  no  other  craft  within  siglit  or 
hearing,  can  summon  to  her  aid  in  case  of  danger  a  score 
of  vessels  ? 

Before  the  World  War,  Germany  had  greatly  developed 
her  shipbuilding  industry.  She  saw  in  England  her  strong- 
est European  rival,  and  she  knew  that,  in  order  to  win 
the  position  of  world  supremacy  of  which  she  dreamed, 
her  power  on  the  ocean  must  be  tremendously  increased. 
Some  of  the  largest  ships  afloat  were  built  in  Germany. 
Along  her  coasts  on  the  North  and  Baltic  seas  there  are 
many  large  shipyards.  In  those  at  Stettin  some  of  her 
largest  ocean  liners  were  built.  Here  also  were  constructed 
more  than  half  of  the  Chinese  navy,  and  many  war  vessels 


34  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 

for  Russia,  Greece,  Japan,  and  other  countries.  At  Kiel, 
the  city  at  the  eastern  end  of  the  famous  Kiel  Canal, 
many  of  the  finest  warships  of  the  German  navy  were 
built  and  repaired.  You  remember  that,  during  the  World 
\Var,  these  splendidly  equipped  vessels  were  penned  up 
near  the  German  coast  by  "'  the  watch  dogs  of  the  British 
navy."  At  the  end  of  the  war  they  were  surrendered  to 
the  Allied  Nations. 

When  the  United  States  entered  the  war,  one  of  our 
greatest  problems  was  to  get  our  fighting  men,  their  arms, 
munitions,  food,  and  other  supplies  to  the  other  side  of 
the  Atlantic.  We  could  not  call  on  England  to  furnish 
all  the  necessary  ships.  She  was  already  straming  her 
resources  to  the  utmost  to  get  vessels  enough  to  guard 
her  coast  and  her  possessions  in  other  parts  of  the  world, 
to  pen  up  the  German  navy,  to  protect  the  food  and  other 
supply  sliips  on  the  open  ocean  from  the  dreaded  U-boats, 
and  to  carry  her  soldiers  to  France,  where  the  heaviest 
figliting  took  place.  The  war  finally  reached  such  a  criti- 
cal stage  that  it  was  absolutely  necessary  that  our  soldiers 
should  get  to  Europe  at  the  earliest  possible  moment.  As 
we  did  not  have  ships  enough  to  take  them  across,  England 
hampered  her  own  plans  in  order  to  furnish  some  vessels 
to  transport  our  troops  and  supplies.  We  furnished  some 
others,  but  the  need  for  more  and  more  men  to  drive  back 
the  German  army  still  continued.  Then,  under  the  direc- 
tion of  our  government,  there  began  such  a  boom  of  ship-, 
building  in  the  United  States  as  was  never  before  known 
in  the  history  of  the  world.  The  shores  of  the  Pacific  in 
the  Northwest  and  along  the  coast  of  California  were 
alive  with  workers,  and  the  skeleton  frames  of  hundreds  of 


SHIPS  AND  SHirBUlLDING  35 

vessels  grew  swiftly  into  sturdy  ocean  carriers.  The  shores 
of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  the  Great  Lakes,  and  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  were  not  less  busy.  In  Delaware  and  Chesapeake 
bays,  at  New  York  City,  along  the  coasts  of  New  Eng- 
land, and  at  nearly  every  bay  and  harbor  on  our  eastern 
border  the  great  Liberty  fleet  grew  like  magic.  In  the  last 
year  of  the  war  hundreds  of  vessels  a  month  were  built 
and  launched  and  joined  the  procession  which  moved  in 
ever-increasmg  numbers  across  the  Atlantic  to  the  shores 
of  France. 

Around  Philadelphia  the  industry  grew  to  unbelievable 
proportions.  The  Delaware  River  and  Bay  furnished  espe- 
cial facilities  for  the  building  and  launching  of  vessels, 
and  great  steel-producing  centers  were  not  far  away.  In 
this  district  more  than  one  hundred  thousand  workers  were 
"  doing  their  bit  "  to  furnish  ships  to  carry  needed  supplies 
to  our  boys  "  over  there." 

The  most  wonderful  of  all  the  shipyards  of  this  district 
was  the  plant  at  Hog  Island.  A  few  months  before  the 
call  came  for  ships  this  island  was  only  waste  land.  Soon 
after  there  grew  here  the  greatest  shipbuilding  plant  in 
the  world.  There  were  acres  of  ships  and  miles  of  rail- 
roads ;  there  were  more  than  fifty  ways,  on  which  that 
number  of  vessels  could  be  built  at  once,  and  here  at  one 
time  thirty-five  thousand  men  were  working. 

In  this  great  shipbuilding  period  when  all  the  ship- 
yards of  the  world  were  working  at  record-breaking  speed, 
wonderful  things  were  accomplished.  A  hundred  vessels 
have  been  launched  m  our  country  in  a  single  day.  Ships 
have  been  built  and  launched  in  three  weeks.  Concrete 
ships   have    become    more    than    an    experiment.    It    was 


36  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 

thought  a  wonderful  invention  when  steel  ships  replaced 
those  of  wood,  but  a  ship  of  solid  stone  seems  even  more 
wonderful.  During  the  war,  vessels  of  concrete  were  built 
in  several  countries.  First  a  steel  skeleton  was  made,  which 
was  packed  around  and  filled  in  with  concrete  strengthened 
by  steel  rods.  Concrete  ships  were  heavier  and  more  difli- 
cult  to  launch  than  those  of  steel,  and  bad  weather  delayed 
their  construction.  They  had  advantages,  however,  which 
offset  these  defects.  They  were  cheaper  and  more  quickly 
Imilt  than  steel  ships,  less  skilled  labor  was  required,  and 
in  some  localities  the  material  was  easier  to  obtain. 

No  one  can  predict  what  giant  ships  may  in  the  future 
sail  on  the  oceans.  The  large  shipyards  of  the  United 
States  and  the  British  Isles  are  able  to-day  to  build  vessels 
so  immense  that  no  harbor  in  the  world  can  accommodate 
them  and  give  the  necessary  traffic  to  make  them  finan- 
cially successful.  Vessels  which,  twenty  years  ago,  were 
considered  models  of  perfection  are  as  different  from  the 
ocean  greyhounds  of  to-day  as  the  first  small,  jolting  horse 
cars  are  unlike  the  large,  comfortable  electrics.  The  hold 
of  a  modern  ocean  liner  would  easily  accommodate  one  of 
the  earlier  steamships,  and  room  would  still  be  left  for 
other  freight. 

There  are  many  stages  between  the  first  birch-bark  canoe 
of  some  primitive  race  and  the  floating  palace  of  to-day, 
and  the  birch  canoe  was  in  itself  a  great  advance  over 
former  methods  of  water  conveyance! 

We  do  not  know  when  man  first  learned  of  the  buoyancy 
of  water  and  of  the  art  of  swimming.  Ages  may  have 
elapsed  before  his  descendants  dragged  the  fallen  tree  to 
the  river  and,  striding  the   log,  propelled  this   first  boat 


SHIPS  AND  SHIPIU  ILDING 


37 


through  the  water  by  using  the  hands  as  paddles.  His 
ingenuity  taught  him  to  make  the  dugout  and  then  the 
birch  canoe  and  coracle.    J^ater  the  use  of  sails  saved  him 


Fig.  14.    Compare  the  Height  of  the  Rudder  of  the  Olympic 
WITH  THE  Height  of  the  Man 

Courtesy  of  the  White  Star  Steamship  Company 

from  laboring  with  his  hands.  Improvements  have  kept 
pace  with  the  ages,  and  since  the  introduction  of  steam  they 
have   come   thick  and   fast.    What  the  future  may  bring 


68833 


38  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 

forth  no  one  knows.  Whether  our  ships  sail  through  the 
air  or  on  the  water,  they  are  sure  to  be  larger  and  swifter 
than  anything  we  possess  at  the  present  time. 

TOPICS  FOR  STUDY 


1.  Description  of  a  large  ocean  steamer. 

2.  Cargo  steamers. 

3.  Tramp  steamers. 

4.  Log  of  a  tramp  steamer. 

5.  Variety  of  ocean  craft. 

6.  Shipbuilding  in  the  British  Isles. 

7.  Location  and  number  of  British  shipyards. 

8.  The  Clyde  River. 

9.  Scotland  :  highlands,  hiwiands,  Glasgow.  > 

10.  Shipyards  on  the  Clyde. 

11.  Building  an  ocean  liner. 

12.  German  shipyards. 

13.  Shipbuilding  in  the  United  States. 

14.  The  growth  and  future  of  shipbuilding. 

II 

1.  Write  the  log  of  a  tramp  steamer,  including  stops  at  six  differ- 
ent ports.  Give  the  cargo  taken  on  at  each  one  and  its  destination. 
On  an  outline  map  of  the  world  trace  the  voyage  of  the  steamer. 
Trace  also,  with  a  dotted  line,  the  route  followed  by  the  traiup 
steamer  mentioned  in  the   text. 

2.  Write  a  list  of  the  different  kinds  of  vessels  of  which  you 
have  heard. 

3.  What  is  included  in  the  terms  "Great  Britain,"  "British 
Isles,"  "British  Commonwealth  of  Nations"? 

4.  Write  a  list  of  the  rivers  of  England  and  Scotland  spoken  of 
in  the  chapter.  Make  a  map  of  Great  Britain  and  on  it  show  the 
rivers  in  your  list.  Indicate  also  the  cities  in  which  shipbuilding  is 
caiTied  on. 

5.  Write  a  list  of  the  different  kinds  of  workmen  employed  in 
building  an  ocean  liner. 


SHIPS  AND  SHIPBUILDING 


39 


6.  Make  a  map  of  the  United  States  and  locate  some  of  our  great 
shipyards. 

7.  Make  a  map  of  Scotland.  Sliow  the  surrounding  waters,  the 
highlands,  lowlands,  the  coal  and  iron  deposits,  the  cities  mentioned, 
and  the  lakes. 

Ill 


Be  able  to  spell  and  pronounce  the  following- 
place  and  tell  what  was  said  about  it  in  tliis 
chapter.    Add  other  facts  if  possible. 

British  Isles 

California 

Chile 


China 

England 

France 

Germany 

Greece 

Ireland 

Japan 

New  England 

Russia 

Scotland 

United  States 

Aberdeen 

Belfast  - 

Chatham 

Cowes 

Dartmouth 

Devonport 

Edinburgh 

Falmouth 

Glasgow 


Hongkong- 
Kiel 
Leith 
Liverpool 
Marseille 
New  York 
Pembroke 
Philadelphia 
Portsmouth 
Sail  Francisco 
Seattle 
Southam]>ton 
Stettin 
Yokohama 

Ben  Lomond 
Cheviot  Hills 
Hog  Island 
Scottish  Highlands 
Scottish  Lowlands 
Trossachs 

Baltic  Sea 
Bristol  Channel 
Chesapeake  Bay 


names.   Locate  each 
and  in  the  previous 

Clyde  River 
Columbia  River 
Connecticut  River 
Delaware  Bay 
Delaware  River 
English  Channel 
Forth  River 
Great  Lakes 
Gulf  of  Mexico 
Humber  River 
Irish  Sea 
Kiel  Canal 
Lagan  River 
Loch  Katrine 
Loch  Lomond 
Mersey  River 
North  Sea 
Solway  River 
Tay  River 
Tees  River 
Thames  River 
Tweed  River 
Tyne  River 
Wear  River 


CHAPTER  III 
IRELAND  AND  THE  LINEN  INDUSTRY 

The  southern  part  of  Ireland  is  known  as  the  Irish  Free 
State.  This,  with  the  Government  of  Northern  Ireland, 
makes  up  the  country  of  Ireland.  We  will  land  at  Cobh. 
This  city  was  formerly  called  Queenstown,  but  the  name 
has  been  changed  to  Cobh.  The  city  is  beautifully  situated 
on  Great  Island,  in  the  harbor  of  Cork.  The  bay  is  about 
six  miles  wide  at  its  mouth,  but  narrows  rapidly  inland  to 
where  the  city  rises  from  the  water  in  green  hills  terraced 
by  zigzag  streets. 

Every  summit  and  island  is  strongly  fortified,  for  Cobh, 
guarding  as  it  does  the  western  coast  of  England,  is  an 
important  military  and  naval  station  of  the  British  Isles." 
On  the  green  slopes  are  many  fine  estates  overlooking  the 
harbor,  and  a  splendid  cathedral  towers  from  the  summit 
of  a  hill.  A  large  marine  hospital  for  British  sailors  is  also 
situated  on  the  heights,  while  just  beyond  are  the  long, 
low  barracks,  from  which  come  the  rattle  of  a  drum  and 
the  shrill  sound  of  a  bugle  calling  the  soldiers  to  the 
daily  drill.  \ 

From  the  heights  we  can  look  down  over  the  beautiful 
harbor  with  its  encircling  hills  and  green  islands,  out  to 
the  broad  entrance,  where  its  blue  waters  meet  the  wide 
expanse  of  the  ocean.  A  great  steamer  is  sailing  majes- 
tically out  into  the  dim  blue  beyond,  and  as  we  watch  it 
grow  smaller  and  smaller  in  the  distance,  until  it  is  onlji 

40 


IRELAND  AND  THE  LINEN  INDUSTRY 


41 


a  tiny  speck  on  the  horizon,  we  think  of  the  mothers  and 
fathers,  the  wives  and  sisters  and  sweethearts,  who  have 
watched  the  ships  sail  out  from  this  "  port  of  tears,"  bear- 
ing away  the  strongest  and  finest  of  Ireland's  sons  and 
daughters  to  seek  their 
fortunes  in  the  New 
World.  Since  the  great 
potato  famine,  which  oc- 
curred near  the  middle 
of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury, nearly  one  half  of 
the  entire  population  of 
Ireland  has  emigrated  to 
America.  There  are  but 
few  families  in  the  south- 
ern part  of  the  coun- 
try which  have  not  lost 
a  father,  a  brother,  a 
sister,  or  some  other  rela- 
tive through  the  port 
of  Cobh.  Conditions  in 
Ireland  are  much  bet- 
ter than  in  former  years. 
Her  people  are  intensely 
patriotic,  and  future 
years  ^nll  see  fewer  of 
her  young  men  and  women  emigrating  to  other  countries. 
We  can  go  from  Cobh  to  Cork,  a  distance  of  less  than 
a  dozen  miles,  by  train  or  by  boat  up  the  river  Lee.  As 
the  river  is  walled  in  nearly  the  entire  distance  and  is  lined 
on  either  side  with  docks  and  factories  and  storehouses, 


^  Underwood  &  Underwood 

Fig.  15.  "Think  of  the  Mothers  and 

FaTHKKS   .   .   .  WHO  HAVE  WATCHED 

THE  Ships  sail  out  from  this  'Port 
OF  Tears' " 


42 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 


we  shall  find  the  trip  by  rail  more  pleasant.  From  the  ear 
windows  we  get  flying  glimpses  of  the  country  around, 
and  we  begin  to  understand  why  Ireland  is  known  as  the 
Emerald  Isle,  for  surely  no  fields  or  meadows  in  any  part 
of  the  world  can  be  greener.  There  are  no  high  mountains 
to  shut  out  the  moist,  westerly  winds  which  blow  in  from 

the  Atlantic  Ocean,  and 
as  a  consequence  rains 
are  very  frequent.  Every 
one  travels  with  raincoat 
and  umbrella,  and  no  one 
minds  very  much  the 
frequent  showers,  be- 
cause, as  the  cheery  na- 
tives tell  us,  it's  such  a 
iXentle  rain. 

We  realize  after  a 
walk  through  the  streets 
of  Cork,  a  city  consider- 
ably smaller  than  Port- 
land, ,  Oregon,  that  we 
are  really  in  the  land 
of  St.  Patrick,  for  we 
cross  St.  Patrick's  bridge, 
climb  the  hill  named  in  his  honor,  walk  down  the  street 
called  by  his  name,  and  rest  awhile  in  St.  Patrick's  Square. 
We  should  know  that  we  are  in  the  land  of  the  Blarney 
Stone  by  the  kindly  greeting,  "  May  Heaven  bless  your 
sweet  face,"  given  to  us  by  an  old  woman  who,  with  her 
small  cart  filled  with  butter,  eggs,  and  gooseberries,  is  on 
her  way  to  market.   In  her  stout  shoes  and  short  skirt,  with 


©  I'riderwooil  &  I  iiderwood 

Fig.  16.   We  walk  down  St.  Patrick's 
Stkeet 


IRELAND  AND  THE  LTXEN  INDUSTRY 


43 


her  black  shawl  over  her  head,  she  has  driven  in  from  the 
country  in  a  queer-looking,  low-backed  donkey  cart.  We 
see  similar  carts  piled  high  with  blocks  of  dried  turf,  called 
peat,  which  the  natives  use  for  fuel.  The  blocks  are  shaped 
somewhat  like  bricks  and  make  a  slow,  hot  fire. 

In  Cork  we  engage  an  Irish  jaunting  car,  such  as  you 
see  in  the  picture  (Fig.  17),  for  a  ride  to  Blarney  Castle. 
We  sit  back  to  back,  with  our  feet  on  boards  over  the 
wheels,  and  enjoy  the 
ride,  while  ourdi-iver 
entertains  us  with 
stories,  half  legend 
and  half  history,  of 
old  days  in  Cork  and 
of  sieges  of  the  castle. 

The  object  of  our 
trip  is  not  to  kiss 
the  Blarney  Stone, 
which  is  built  into 
one  of  the  walls  of 
the  castle,  and  thus 
acquire  the  "  golden 
tongue,"  which  is  said  to  be  given  to  those  who  accom- 
plish the  feat,  but  to  enjoy  the  view  from  the  top  of  the 
tower.  It  is  certainly  worth  the  climb.  Spread  out  at  our 
feet  are  the  greenest  of  green  meadows,  dotted  with  white 
daisies  and  red  poppies.  Fat,  contented-looking  cattle  and 
sheep  are  feeding  all  around.  White  roads  hedged  in  with  old 
stone  walls,  some  of  them  covered  with  beautiful  fuchsias, 
wind  in  and  out  over  the  hills  and  through  the  valleys. 
We  catch  a  glimpse  of  an  old  ruined  castle  and  see  here  and 


Fig.  17. 


©  Keystone  View  Co. 

"  In  Cork  we  engage  an  Irish 
Jaunting  Car  " 


44 


INDUSTRIAL   STUDIES  — EUROPE 


there  a  fine  estate  of  the  gentry,  set  in  a  grove  of  grand  old 

trees  and  inclosed  by  high  stone  walls. 

Most  of  the  buildings  in  sight,  however,  are  low  cottages 

with  thatched  roofs,  which  look  very  picturesque  in  the 

distance.    A  nearer  view  soon  robs  them  of  much  of  their 

charm,  for  they  are  poor 
little  shanties  at  best, 
built  of  stone  or  mud, 
with  the  eaves  not  more 
than  five  or  six  feet  from 
the  ground.  Small  win- 
dows of  only  a  few  panes 
each  ai"e  on  either  side 
of  the  door,  and  the 
interior  of  the  cottage 
seems  rather  damp  and 
gloomy.  There  are  sev- 
eral skillets  and  other 
cooking  dishes  hanging 
on  the  walls  around, 
and  a  smoldering  lire 
of  peat,  sending  out  a 
not  unpleasant  odor  into 
the  room,  glows  in  the 

fireplace.     You   will  read   further   on    in    this    chapter    a 

description  of  the  cutting   and  preparing  of  peat,  which 

is  the  common  fuel  of  Ireland. 

Near  the  house  we  see  small  patches  of  potatoes  and 

vegetables  and  perhaps  a  small  field  of  wheat  or  corn,  but 

most  of  the  land  is  given  over  to  pasturage  for  the  cattle. 

Since  the  emigration  of  so  many  of  the  young  men  from 


^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^K'^v               s^i^StM 

\            < 

■:  jH 

^      1 

s^^fl 

©  Underwood  &  I'liderwood 

Fig.  18.    It  is  in  sich  a  Home  as  this 

THAT  Some  of  the  Poorer  People  of 

Irelaxd  live 


IRELAND  AND  THE  LINEN  INDUSTRY  45 

this  part  of  Ireland,  fewer  farm  products  are  grown,  and 
hay  and  cattle,  which  requii-e  a  smaller  number  of  hands, 
are  raised  instead.  All  over  central  and  southern  Ireland 
stock  raising  is  the  chief  industry.  We  understand  now 
the  reason  for  the  great  stores  of  butter  and  bacon  and 
the  large  number  of  cattle,  which  we  saw  being  loaded  at 
Cork  onto  steamers  bound  for  England  and  the  Contment. 
Twice  as  many  cattle  are  imported  into  Great  Britain  from 
Ireland  as  come  from  all  the  rest  of  the  world  put  together. 

It  would  require  a  train  of  cars  nearly  ten  miles  long  to 
carry  the  butter  which  is  sent  every  year  out  of  the  harbor 
of  Cork.  As  for  the  eggs,  it  would  take  you  several  years, 
counting  as  rapidly  as  possible  and  stopping  neither  to  eat 
nor  to  sleep,  to  count  the  millions  of  dozens  that  are  ex- 
ported from  Cork  in  one  year.  If  we  were  to  load  into 
wagons  the  cans  of  condensed  milk  wdiich  are  shipped  from 
the  harbor  in  the  same  time,  estimating  a  ton  to  a  horse, 
we  should  need  more  than  seven  thousand  horses  to  draw 
the  loads  to  the  wharves. 

The  government  has  been  of  great  help  in  developing 
the  dairy  industry  throughout  Ireland.  Efforts  have  been 
made  to  teach  the  people  better  methods  of  farming,  and 
in  many  places  dairies  and  creameries  have  been  established 
where  the  farmers  can  find  a  steady  sale  for  their  milk  at 
fair  prices. 

The  flax  fields  which  we  are  to  visit,  lie  in  the  northern 
part  of  the  country,  and  reluctantly  we  leave  the  tower  and 
return  to  Cork,  where  we  take  a  train  for  Dublin,  one  hun- 
dred sixty  miles  away.  Our  route  lies  through  a  rolling 
country  similar  to  that  which  we  saw  from  the  top  of  Blar- 
ney Castle.    There  are  the  same  green  pastures  and  fat 


46  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 

cattle,  the  same  little  thatched  cottages,  the  same  kindly 
old  people,  who  greet  us  with  a  cheerier  smile  and  a  more 
hearty  ''  God  bless  you  "  because  we  come  from  the  coun- 
try Avhere  so  many  friends  and  neighbors  and  relatives 
have  gone. 

Emigration  has  drawn  most  heavily  from  the  counties 
through  which  we  are  passing,  —  the  names  of  which  jon 
have  heard  many  times,  —  Cork,  Limerick,  Tipperary, 
Kilkenny,  and  others.  They  are  the  most  fertile  parts 
of  Ireland,  yet  many  of  the  villages  and  towns  have  lost, 
through  the  departure  of  so  many  of  their  inhabitants 
for  America,  more  than  one  half  of  their  population, 
and  wdiere  once  grew  great  crops  of  M^heat,  oats,  barley, 
potatoes,  turnips,  and  other  vegetables,  we  now  see 
hayfields,  and  pastures  where  many  cattle  and  sheep 
are  feeding. 

Every  cabin  has  its  garden  patch,  and  in  all  of  them 
potatoes  are  the  chief  crop.  In  parts  of  the  country,  espe- 
cially in  the  south  and  west,  these  vegetables  form  the 
chief  food  of  the  people.  Ireland  is  not  quite  as  large  as 
the  state  of  IVIaine,  yet  several  times  as  many  potatoes  are 
raised  in  the  Emerald  Isle  as  in  our  Pine  Tree  State. 
To  store  them  all,  you  would  need  a  cellar  so  huge  that 
it  would  be  several  times  as  deep  as  your  schoolhouse  is 
high.  It  would,  in  fact,  have  to  be  more  than  five  hundred 
feet  long  and  of  the  same  width  and  depth. 

Our  journey  to  Dublin  takes  us  through  the  peat  bogs, 
or,  as  someone  has  called  them,  "  the  gold  mines  of  Ire- 
land." These  low,  green  meadows  are  made  of  accumula- 
tions of  a  peculiar  kind  of  moss,  which  has  grown  and 
decayed  for  centuries,  until  the  layers  are  several  feet  thick. 


IRELAND  AND  THE  LINEN  INDUSTRY 


47 


Over  there  to  our  right  are  some  men  and  boys  cutting 
peat.  Many  hundreds  of  people  earn  their  living  by  pre- 
paring the  blocks  for  fuel  and  selling  them.  Let  us  see  how 
the  work  is  done.  We  make  our  war  through  the  coarse 
grass  and  the  tall  rushes  toward  the  long,  black  mounds 
of  peat,  beside  the  trenches  where  the  cutters  are  at  work. 


(£)  Uuderwood  &  Underwood 

Fig.  19.    "They  cut  the  Peat  into  Blocks  about  the  Size  of  a 
Bkick  or  Larger,  and  throw  theji  out  of  the  Ditch" 

The  men  are  standing  in  the  black  mud  and  water  halfway 
up  to  their  knees,  and  their  two  garments,  Avhich  we  shall 
have  to  dignify  by  the  names  of  shirt  and  trousers,  are  the 
color  of  the  mud.  Using  a  long,  narrow  spade,  they  cut 
the  peat  into  blocks  about  the  size  of  a  brick  or  larger,  and 
throw  them  out  of  the  ditch  onto  the  bank. 

Another  workman   piles   these   onto   a  curiously  made 
wheelbarrow,  while  a  third  wheels  the  load  away  toward 


48  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  —  EUROPE 

the  black  pile,  where  the  women  stack  the  blocks  to  dry. 
Here  they  remain  for  several  weeks,  until  dry  enough  to  be 
sold  or  carted  away  for  use.  Nearly  all  the  people  in  Ire- 
land burn  peat  for  fuel,  and  it  is  hard  to  say  what  would 
become  of  the  poorer  classes  if  the  supply  should  fail,  for 
there  is  no  coal  and  but  little  wood  in  the  country.  There 
is  no  immediate  danger  of  exhausting  the  supply,  however, 
as  one  sixth  of  the  island,  an  area  larger  than  the  whole 
state  of  Connecticut,  is  covered  with  bogs  from  which, 
though  immense  quantities  are  cut  each  year,  Ireland  can 
be  supplied  with  fuel  for  centuries. 

We  will  delay  our  trip  to  the  flax  fields  for  a  short  stay 
in  Dublin,  the  capital  of  the  Irish  Free  State  and  the 
second  city  in  importance.  It  is  about  the  size  of  New 
Orleans  and  is  situated  near  Dublin  Bay.  We  will  take  a 
tram,  as  the  electric  cars  in  Europe  are  usually  called,  for 
a  tour  through  the  city.  Instead  of  taking  the  seats  inside 
the  car,  we  choose  those  on  the  top  as  being  the  best  for 
sight-seeing.  Most  of  the  finer  residences  are  surrounded 
by  high  stone  walls,  behind  which  the  people  enjoy  in 
privacy  their  beautiful  parks  and  gardens,  and  the  higher 
seats  give  us  a  chance  to  peep  over  the  walls. 

Several  handsome  bridges  span  the  Liffey  River,  on 
which  Dublin  is  situated,  and  broad,  green-banked  canals 
connect  the  city  with  the  interior  of  the  country.  On  these 
waterways  queer,  flat  boats  bring  to  Dublin  many  cattle 
and  great  quantities  of  dairy  products,  potatoes,  and 
grain,  to  be  shipped  to  England  and  to  other  countries. 
Since  Dublin  is  a  capital  city,  it  contains  many  fine  build- 
ings, including  courthouses,  hospitals,  asylums,  libraries, 
cathedrals,  colleges,  and  the  customhouse.   We  pass  many  of 


IRELAND  AXD  THE  LINEN  INDUSTRY 


49 


these  on  our  trip,  and  on  our  return  we  go  through  the  busi- 
ness and  industrial  portion  of  the  city,  where  we  see  many- 
breweries  and  distilleries.  The  making  of  ale,  beer,  whisky, 
and  other  liquors  is  one  of  the  most  important  industries, 
and  these  products  are  exported  in  immense  quantities. 


)  Uuderwood  &  Underwood 

Fig.  20.    "On  the  Green  Meadows  are  Yards  and  Yards  of 
Linen  bleaching  in  the  Sun  and  Rain" 

As  we  go  from  Dublin  northward  the  appearance  of  the 
country  changes.  The  farms  are  larger.  The  fields  of  flax, 
grain,  potatoes,  and  other  vegetables  are  well  cultivated. 
The  houses  are  larger  and  more  comfortable;  they  have 
wooden  floors,  stoves,  beds,  and  other  conveniences  not 
found  in  the  cottages  farther  south.  From  the  train  we  see 
the  smokestacks  of  factories  in  the  busy  towns,  and  on  the 


50  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 

green  meadows  are  yards  and  yards  of  linen  bleaching  in 
the  sun  and  rain.  We  pass  field  after  field  of  the  growing- 
flax,  and  realize  that  at  last  we  are  in  the  midst  of  the 
famous  Irish  linen  region.  On  one  of  the  farms  we  see 
some  men  pulling  flax.  They  knock  the  dirt  from  the  roots 
by  a  blow  agamst  the  foot,  and  lay  the  straw  m  bundles. 
Farther  on  we  see  meadows  covered  with  straw  spread  out, 
and  spoiling,  as  it  seems  to  us,  in  the  dampness.  What  a 
queer  plant  it  is  I  It  is  pulled  up  by  the  roots  instead  of 
being  cut,  and  is  laid  out  in  the  dew  and  rain  instead  of 
being  kept  dry,  as  most  crops  are. 

The  part  of  the  plant  which  is  used  for  manufacturing 
is  the  soft  inner  fiber,  which  lies  under  the  outer  bark,  or 
covermg.  We  find,  by  taking  one  of  the  stalks  and  trying 
to  break  it,  that  the  fiber  is  seldom  more  than  two  or  three 
inches  long.  Before  it  can  be  used  it  must  be  separated 
ftfom  the  woody  part  of  the  stem.  To  help  m  this  process 
':he  stalk  is  rotted,  or  retted,  as  it  is  usually  called,  by  put- 
;ing  it  into  running  water  or  into  natural  or  artificial  pools 
of  still  water,  or  by  spreading  it  out  on  damp  meadows. 
You  would  not  like  this  part  of  the  work,  I  am  sure,  for 
the  smell  from  the  decaying  wood  is  very  unpleasant,  and 
those  fields  where  we  saw  the  straw  lying  on  the  ground 
are  better  examined  at  a  distance.  We  understand  now,  how- 
ever, that  the  flax  was  not  being  spoiled  by  the  dampness, 
as  we  thought,  but  was,  instead,  being  prepared  for  use. 

After  the  retting  the  decayed,  woody  matter  is  sepa- 
rated from  the  soft,  silky  fiber.  The  bundles  of  straw  are 
removed  from  the  water  cr  from  the  meadows  where  they 
have  been  lying,  and  are  thoroughly  dried,  after  which 
the  stalks  are  run  through  machines  consisting  of  fluted 


IRELAND  AND  THE  LINEN  INDUSTRY 


51 


rollers,  which  break  up  and  loosen  the  brittle  pieces  of 
woody  matter.  They  are  then  scraped  by  means  of  flat 
wooden  paddles.  When  this  process,  called  scutching, 
was  done  by  hand,  the  farmer  held  the  straw  in  one  hand 
and  struck  it  a  glancing  blow  with  the  paddle  held  in  the 
other.  To-day,  however,  scutching  is  done  not  by  hand 
but  by  machinery.  A 
wheel  carrying  several 
blades  revolves  so  rap- 
idly that  these  paddles 
strike  the  fiber  nearly  two 
thousand  blows  a  min- 
ute. This  soon  breaks 
the  woody  matter  up  into 
fine  bits,  which,  with 
the  dust,  are  removed 
by  currents  of  air.  The 
silky,  gray  fibers  are 
then  sorted,  tied  up  in 
small  bundles,  and  done 
up  in  bales  of  about  two 
hundred  pounds  each. 

Arriving  at  the    fac- 
tory,   the    tangled,    un- 
even fibers  are  combed,  or  hackled,  until  they  lie  straight 
and  smooth,  and  the  shorter  ones,  called  tow,  from  which 
only  cheap  goods  can  be  made,  are  combed  out. 

The  fibers  are  spun  into  yarn  or  thread  and  are  then 
woven  into  cloth  or  fashioned  into  fine  lace.  The  spinning 
and  weaving  are  similar  to  the  spinning  and  weaving  of 
cotton  or  wool,  except  that  the  flax  thread  is  usually  kept 


'  tfhderwood  &  Underwood 

Fig.  21.   Ahuiving  at  the  Factory, 
THE  Tangled  Fibers  are  hackled 


52  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 

moist  during  the  process.  For  this  reason  the  damp  climate 
of  Ireland  assists  materially  in  making  the  manufacture  of 
linen  so  successful  in  that  country. 

As  we  come  neai*er  to  the  Belfast  district,  everything  is 
as  different  from  southern  Ireland  as  a  manufacturing  city 
is  from  a  country  village.  The  sunshine  and  the  rain,  or 
"  the  smiles  and  tears  of  Ireland,"  as  some  one  has  called 
them,  are,  however,  just  the  same,  and  the  tears  come  fully 
as  often  in  the  north  of  Ireland  as  in  the  south.  In  one 
year  in  Belfast  it  rained  two  hundred  thirty-two  clays  out 
of  the  three  hundred  sixty-five.  The  linen  industry  would 
not  be  so  important  as  it  is  if  the  air  were  less  moist,  so  the 
people  have  cause  to  be  glad  rather  than  to  grieve  over  the 
frequent  rains. 

Belfast,  the  Chicago  of  Ireland,  is  the  largest  linen- 
manufacturing  center  in  the  world.  It  is  nearly  as  large 
as  Cincinnati,  and  in  its  bustle  and  activity  reminds  us 
of  the  great  manufacturing  cities  of  the  United  States.  It 
is  more  Scotch  than  Irish  in  its  customs,  for  many  of  the 
inhabitants  are  descendants  of  early  settlers  from  Scotland. 

The  coal  fields  of  Scotland,  across  the  North  Channel,  are 
largely  responsible  for  the  manufacturing  development  of 
the  city.  Coal  can  be  brought  to  Belfast  by  water  more 
cheaply  than  it  can  be  carried  by  rail  for  a  shorter  distance 
to  inland  cities  of  Great  Britain.  These  and  other  large 
centers  in  England  and  on  the  Continent  furnish  good 
markets  for  the  manufactured  products  of  Belfast. 

The  city  is  beautifully  situated  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Lagan  River.  The  green  hills  which  encircle  it  are  thickly 
studded  with  villas  and  country  houses  of  the  wealthy  mer- 
chants.   The  streets  are  wide  and  well  paved,  and  there 


IRELAND  AXD  THE  LINEN  INDUSTRY  53 

• 

are  fine  drives,  parks,  and  gardens.  We  are  less  interested, 
however,  in  tlie  beauty  of  the  city  than  in  its  industries, 
which  are  remarkable.  It  has,  as  you  know,  some  of  the 
largest  shipyards  in  the  \Aorld  in  which  thousands  of  people 
find  employment.  It  has  also  extensive  rope  and  twine 
works  for  Avhich  many  thousand  tons  of  fiber  are  imported 
annually.  The  great  foundries  and  machine  shops  make 
spinning  and  weaving  machines  for  the  linen  industry  all 
over  the  world.  Belfast  is  one  of  the  noted  cities  of  the 
world  for  the  making  of  bottled  waters,  ginger  ale,  soda 
water,  and  other  refreshing  beverages. 

Besides  these  industries  Belfast  has  many  others,  among 
which  are  bleacheries,  dj^ehouses,  flour  mills,  oil  mills,  and 
sawmills,  calico  printing  and  chemical  works,  breweries, 
distilleries,  tobacco  factories,  and  other  great  manufacturing 
plants. 

The  huffe  linen  mills  interest  us  more  than  all  the 
others,  and  they  are  really  more  important.  There  are 
many  of  them,  and  they  produce  enormous  quantities  of 
linen  cloth.  In  the  mills  of  one  of  the  great  companies 
enough  linen  thread  is  made  each  day  to  go  five  times 
around  the  earth  at  the  equator. 

In  our  ride  through  Ireland  we  saw  flax  fields  covering 
many  acres.  The  linen  industry  of  Belfast,  however,  is  so 
immense  that  in  ordinary  years  millions  of  dollars  worth 
of  flax,  chiefly  from  Russia  and  Belgium,  must  be  imported 
annually  into  the  city  to  feed  her  greedy  mills. 

You  are  probably  wondering  what  place  the  United 
States  holds  in  the  flax  and  linen  industry.  We  raise  a 
great  deal  of  flax,  and  rank,  with  Argentina,  Russia,  and 
India,  among  the  great  flax-producing  countries  of  the  world. 


54  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 

The  plant  is  grown  in  the  United  States,  however,  not  so 
much  for  the  liber  as  for  the  seeds,  which  are  very  valuable. 
You  have  doubtless  heard  of  linseed  oil,  which  is  made  in 
immense  quantities  from  flaxseed.  There  is  no  other  oil 
which,  when  mixed  with  paints  and  varnishes,  dries  so 
readily  and  leaves  so  fine  a  surface.  Millions  of  gallons 
are  spread  every  year  on  our  houses,  leathers  are  dressed 
with  it,  the  oilskin  clothing  of  sailors  is  soaked  in  it,  and 
it  stares  at  us  in  the  ink  on  our  newspapers. 

The  flax  seeds  are  crushed  in  much  the  same  way  as 
those  of  the  cotton  plant  in  making  cottonseed  oil.  After 
the  oil  has  been  extracted  the  crushed  seeds  are  made  into 
cakes,  which  are  considered  a  valuable  food  for  cattle. 

Millions  of  bushels  of  flaxseed  are  produced  annually. 
Argentina,  India,  Russia,  and  the  United  States  produce 
nearly  all  of  this  immense  quantity. 

TOPICS  FOR  STUDY 

I 

1.  Desci-iption  of  Cobh.  7.  Xorthern  Ireland. 

2.  A  trip  to  Blarney  Castle.        8.  Cultivation  of  flax. 

3.  Cattle  and  dairy  i^roducts.      9.  Manufacture  of  linen. 

4.  Emigration.  10.  Description  of  Belfast. 

6.  Peat.  11.  Flax  industry  in  other  countries. 

6.  Description  of  Dublin.  12.  Flaxseed. 

II 

1.  Trace  the  voyage  and  name  the  waters  sailed  on  in  a  voyage 
from  Cobh  to  New  York. 

2.  Sketch  a  map  of  Ireland.  Locate  all  cities  mentioned  in  the 
chapter.  Write  the  names  of  the  surrounding  waters.  Trace  our 
route  from  Cobh  to  Belfast.  Add  the  map  of  Scotland  and  indicate 
the  coal  and  iron  regions  of  that  country. 


IRELAND  Ax\D  THE  LINEN  INDUSTRY 


55 


3.  Write  the  story  of  the  formation  of  peat  and  of  its  preparation 
for  use. 

4.  Write  a  list  of  the  markets  to  which  exports  from  Belfast  may 
be  sent.    Locate  each  city. 

5.  Name  the  processes  in  the  prejoaration  of  flax.    Describe  each. 

6.  Make  a  list  of  the  industries  of  Belfast.  Try  to  think  of  some 
reason  for  the  location  of  each  one  in  that  city. 

7.  What  countries  produce  the  best  flax  fiber?  the  most  flaxseed? 

8.  Add  to  your  school  collection  by  bringing  samples  of  flax- 
seed and  linseed  oil:  also  samples  of  articles  made  of  jute,  of  flax, 
and  of  hemp. 

9.  Why  was  there  such  a  linen  shortage  during  the  World  War? 
"NMiat  very  important  use  did  linen  serve  during  the  war? 


Ill 

Be  able  to  spell  and  pronounce  the  following  names.  Locate 
each  i^lace  and  tell  what  was  said  of  it  in  this  and  in  any  previous 
chapter.    Add  other  facts  if  possible. 


Argentina 

Belgium 

Connecticut 

Great  Britain 

India 

Ireland 

Maine 

Russia 


Scotland 
United  States 

Belfast 

Chicago 

Cobh 

Cork 

Dublin 


New  Orleans 
Portland 
San  Francisco 

Lagan  River 
Lee  River 
Liffey  River 
North  Channel 


CHAPTER  IV 
JUTE,  HEMP,  AND  OTHER  FIBERS 

Other  fibers  besides  flax  are '  of  great  value  in  the 
industrial  world,  and  many  new  ones,  unknown  to-day, 
will  be  used  in  the  future.  In  tlie  deep  forests  of  tropical 
lands  there  are  varieties  of  trees  and  plants  the  names  of 
which  are  as  yet  scarcely  known,  but  which  sometime  \\'ill 
supply  much  of  the  demand  for  libers  to  use  in  textiles 
and  other  manufactures. 

You  have  all  seen  the  brown  bags  —  gunny  bags  they 
are  called  —  in  which  grain  is  sometimes  shipped,  or  the 
coarse  bagging  in  which  bales  of  cotton  and  wool  are 
done  up.  Perhaps  you  have  on  3'our  floors  at  home  some 
of  the  liber  rugs  which  are  now  so  popular.  All  these  and 
many  other  articles  are  made  of  jute. 

Jute  is  one  of  the  fibers  whose  original  home  was  in  a 
tropical  jungle.  To-day  it  is  widely  used  in  manufacturing. 
To  see  the  plant  growing  and  to  learn  how  it  is  raised,  we 
shall  have  to  take  a  long  journey  to  the  southern  part 
of  Asia.  We  will  go  to  the  province  of  Bengal  in  India, 
for  nearly  all  the  jute  used  in  the  ^^■orld  comes  from  that 
region.  There  we  shall  see  fields  upon  fields  of  the  tall, 
slender  plant  waving  in  the  tropical  breeze.  It  grows  in 
single  stalks  to  the  height  of  ten  or  twelve  feet,  and  the 
jute  fields  in  the  province  of  Bengal  alone  cover  an  area 
half  as  large  as  the  state  of  Massachusetts. 

56 


JUTE,  HEMP,  AND  OTHER  FIBERS  57 

The  crop  is  sown,  cared  for,  and  reaped  by  the  dark- 
skinned  natives  of  India,  who  also  work  in  large  numbers 
in  the  great  jute  mills  of  Calcutta.  These  workmen  are 
very  unlike  the  mill  operatives  in  the  United  States  and 
in  Europe.  They  live  in  villages  made  up  of  huts  built  of 
mud  or  bricks,  or  of  palm  leaves  woven  into  sheets  and 
tacked  onto  bamboo  poles.  The  huts  are  thatched  with 
a  long,  tough  grass  used  for  the  purpose  throughout  India. 
The  floor  is  of  clay,  covered  in  places  wdth  matting  made 
of  bamboo  grass.  There  may  be  a  few  rough  benches,  pos- 
sibly a  rude  bed,  but  little  other  furniture.  The  natives  eat 
on  the  floor,  squatted  around  a  pot  or  pan  containing  the 
food,  which  is  probably  a  preparation  of  rice,  vegetables, 
and  curry.  No  knives,  forks,  or  spoons  are  used,  as  the 
fingers  answer  all  purposes.  As  the  climate  is  so  warm 
the  people  wear  but  little  clothing.  The  men  in  the  jute 
fields  are  dressed  in  Avhat  looks  to  us  like  a  shrunken 
bathing  suit,  while  the  women  are  draped  with  many 
yards  of  thin  muslin. 

About  blossoming  tinre  the  jute  is  cut  close  to  the  ground, 
and  the  leaves  and  branches  are  trimmed  off.  The  stalks 
are  retted  in  a  manner  similar  to  the  retting  of  flax.  They 
are  then  beaten  to  remove  the  woody  matter,  after  which 
the  fiber  is  cleaned,  dried,  and  made  into  bales  of  four 
hundred  pounds  each.  Several  millions  of  such  bales  are 
produced  each  year,  many  of  which  are  sent  to  Calcutta 
for  manufacture,  and  many  more  to  Scotland,  the  remamder 
being  scattered  among  different  countries.  Most  of  that 
bound  for  Scotland  is  shipped  direct  from  Calcutta  to 
Dundee,  a  fine  port  on  the  Tay  River,  about  eight  miles 
from  the  sea.    It  is  the  chief  center  in  Great  Britam  for 


58  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 

the  manufacture  of  coarse  linen  fabrics,  and  is  the  birth- 
place of  jute  manufacturing. 

A  greater  variety  of  products  than  most  people  realize 
is  made  in  Dundee  from  this  coarse  fiber.  Among  them 
are  burlap,  wadding,  sailcloth,  curtain  and  furniture  hang- 
ings, imitation  tapestries  and  fancy  goods,  and  mixtures  of 
linen,  cotton,  and  silk. 

There  are  more  than  fifty  jute  mills  in  Dundee,  in  which 
enough  jute  cloth  is  made  annually  to  stretch  a  layer  of 
more  than  thirty  thicknesses  entirely  across  the  United 
States  from  Boston  to  San  Francisco.  In  these  mills  many 
thousands  of  people,  three  fourths  of  whom  are  women, 
find  employment.  Jute  is  raised  and  manufactured  very 
cheaply  in  India,  and  in  order  to  compete  with  that  coun- 
try, manufacturers  in  Dundee  must  keep  their  prices  as 
low  as  possible,  AVomen  can  be  hired  more  cheaply  than 
men,  and  more  than  half  of  the  seventy-five  thousand 
women  and  girls  who  live  in  the  city  of  Dundee  earn  their 
own  living,  and  perhaps  that  of  relatives  dependent  on 
them,  by  working  in  the  mills  and  factories. 

]\Iany  of  the  families  of  the  operatives  live  in  houses  of 
one  or  two  rooms,  sleep  in  the  kitchen,  and  have  little 
leisure  for  fun.  The  schools  are  good,  and  the  boys  and 
girls  are  obliged  to  attend  them  until  they  are  fourteen 
years  of  age,  when  most  of  them  go  to  work.  Their  food  is 
plain  —  porridge  and  milk  for  breakfast,  a  soup  made  of 
meat,  leeks,  carrots,  turnips,  and  barley  for  dinner,  and 
bread,  butter,  and  tea  for  supper,  with  perhaps  a  piece  of 
fish  or  meat  for  the  men. 

The  world's  entire  crops  of  cotton  and  coffee,  and  much 
of  the  gram,  sugar,  and  rice,  are  shipped  in  jute  bagging. 


JUTE,  HEMP,  AND  OTHER  FIBERS 


59 


and  its  manufacture  is  a  very  important  industry.  Not  alone 
in  Dundee,  but  in  other  cities  of  Great  Britain,  in  other 
European  countries,  and  in  the  United  States,  there  are 
many  jute  mills.  To  supply  the  looms  in  our  country,  we 
buy  each  year  many  million   dollars'  worth  of  the  fiber. 


FiG.  22.    The  True  Hemp  is  a  Tall,  Slender  Plant  which  grows 
TO  A  Height  of  from  Five  to  Fifteen  Feet 

Courtesy  of  Mr.  T.  R.  Bryant,  College  of  Agriculture,  Lexington,  Kentucky 


Brazil  is  the  best  customer  for  British-made  jute  yarn,  which 
is  manufactured  in  the  great  South  American  Republic  into 
millions  of  bags  to  hold  her  immense  coffee  crop. 

Calcutta,  however,  takes  highest  rank  for  both  the  export 
and  the  manufacture  of  jute  fiber.  In  one  year  there  is 
shipped  from  India,  largely  by  way  of  Calcutta,  enough 
jute  fiber  to  fill  more  than  twenty-five  thousand  freight 


60 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 


cars,  enough  yards  of  gunny  cloth  to  wrap  between  fifteen 
and  twenty  times  around  tlie  eartli  at  the  equator,  and 
more  than  two  hundred  million  gunny  bags. 


Fig.  23.   Combing  Hemp 
Courtesy  of  the  International  Harvester  Company 

There  are  many  other  fibers  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
articles  which  we  should  surely  miss  if  we  were  to  be 
deprived  of  them.  Did  you  ever  think  of  the  value  of  rope 
and  other  cordage  as  an  article  of  commerce,  and  of  the 


JUTE,  IIEMr,  AND  OTHER  FIBERS  61 

great  variety  of  uses  to  which  it  is  put?  By  its  aid  the 
sailor  adjusts  his  sails,  the  fisherman  reaps  his  ocean  harvest, 
the  soldier  fastens  down  his  tent,  the  workman  arranges  his 
staging,  and  the  farmer  binds  up  his  sheaves  of  grain. 

Rope  has  been  used  for  many  centuries.  Pictures  on 
the  tombs  of  Egyptian  mummies  buried  hundreds  of  years 
ago  illustrate  the  making  of  rope.    Most  savage  peoples 


Fig.  24.    One  Firm  manufactures  Twine   enough  Every  Year  to 

stretch  to  the  moon  and  back  more  than  thirty  tlmes 

Courtesy  of  the  International  Harvester  Company 

manufacture  rope  of  some  sort,  and  many  different  kinds 
of  fiber  are  used  for  this  purpose. 

Rope  is  made  chiefly  of  hemp,  and  a  number  of  plants 
are  included  under  this  name.  The  true  variety  is  a  tall, 
slender  plant  with  a  single  hollow  stalk  which  grows  to  a 
height  of  from  five  to  fifteen  feet.  Russia  has  produced 
more  hemp  than  all  tlie  rest  of  the  world.  It  is  also  grown 
in  Central  Europe,  Italy,  France,  Germany,  in  certain  parts 


62 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 


of  Asia  and  Africa,  and  to  a  small  extent  in  the  United 
States  —  in  Kentucky,  California,  and  in  some  other  sections. 
If  any  of  you  own  a  canary,  you  have  probably  noticed 
how  fond  he  is  of  hempseed,  and  large  quantities  are  sold 
each  year  to  be  used  as  bird  food.    The  newly  sown  fields 

of  hemp  have  to  be  care- 
fully watched,  lest  the 
birds  should  get  more 
than  their  share. 

The  hemp  is  cut  and 
the  fiber  is  separated 
from  the  woody  part  of 
the  stalk  in  much  the 
same  wa,j  as  the  flax  is 
treated.  The  fibers  of  the 
hemp  are  much  longer 
and  coarser  and  can- 
not be  easily  bleached. 
Hemp  is  not  so  use- 
ful, therefore,  for  fine, 
delicate  articles  as  for 
rougher  materials,  such 
as  ropes  and  twine. 
Hemp  is  grown  all  over  Russia,  except  in  the  extreme 
north.  Nearly  two  million  acres  are  covered  with  this  tall, 
graceful  plant,  and  an  enormous  quantity  of  the  fiber  is 
produced.  More  than  half  of  this  is  used  in  Russia  itself, 
and  the  remainder  is  sent  to  the  different  European  coun- 
tries and  to  the  United  States  for  making  various  kinds 
of  cordage  which,  as  different  industries  of  the  world  are 
developed,  is  made  in  increasing  quantities  each  year. 


Fig.  25.    "Manila  Fiber  is  obtained 
FROM  a  Plant  Similar  to  the  Banana  " 


JUTE,  HEMP,  AXD  OTHER  FIBERS 


63 


There  are  many  firms  iii  the  United  States  wliich  make 
immense  quantities  of  rope  and  twine.  Since  our  wheat 
crop  has  grown  to  such  enormous  proportions,  and  those 
wonderful  liarvesting  machines  which  cut,  thresh,  and  tie 
up  tlie  bags  of  grain,  have  been  invented,  we  use  and  sell 
to  other  grain-producing  countries  immense  quantities  of 


Fig.  'M.    "Sisal  Hlmi'  kesembles  an  Ovekgrown  Century  Plant" 
Courtesy  of  the  International  Harvester  Company 


twine.  One  firm  in  Chicao'o  which  manufactures  harvesters 
and  the  twine  to  use  on  them  makes  in  one  year  enough  to 
stretch  to  the  moon  and  back  more  than  thirty  times. 

You  must  not  think,  however,  that  these  enormous  quan- 
tities of  rope  and  twine  are  made  from  the  true  hemp,  such 
as  grows  in  Russia  and  other  European  countries,  for  com- 
paratively little  is  made  from  that  material.    INIost  of  the 


(34  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES —  EUROPE 

cordaoe  iiiade  in  the  world  to-day  is  manufactured  from 
Manila  fiber  and  sisal  fiber,  neither  oi  which  is  related 
to  the  real  hemp.  The  Manila  fiber  is  obtained  from  a  plant 
similar  to  the  banana,  whicli  grows  chiefly  in  the  Philip- 
pine Islands.  The  sisal  hemp,  produced  chief!}-  hi  Mexico, 
resembles  an  overgrown  century  plant. 

A  train  of  more  than  three  thousand  cars  would  be 
required  to  carr}^  our  annual  imports  of  either  sisal  or 
Manila  fiber.  The  true  hemp  fiber  imported  from  European 
countries  could  be  easily  loaded  onto  a  few  hundred  cars. 

TOPICS  FOR  STUDY 

I 

1.  Tlie  jute  industry  of  India. 

2.  Jute  manufacturing  in  Dundee. 

3.  Uses  of  jute. 

4.  The  lienip  industiy. 

5.  A'arieties  of  fiber  used  for  rope. 

II 

1.  Name  the  waters  sailed  on  in  a  voyage  from  Calcutta  to  Dundee. 

2.  Write  a  list  of  places  in  Scotland  mentioned  in  Chapter  II. 
Add   tliose  in  this  chapter.    Sketch  a  map  and  show  these  places. 

3.  Sketch  a  map  of  India.  Show  its  land  and  water  boundaries, 
the  province  of  Bengal,  and  the  city  of  Calcutta. 

Ill 

IJe  ablf  to  sjiell  and  pronounce  the  following  names.  Locate  each 
place  and  tell  what  was  said  of  it  in  tliis  and  in  any  previous  chajiter. 
Add  other  facts  if  possible. 

Mexico  Boston 

Philippine  Islands  Calcutta 

Russia  Chicago 

Scotland  Dundee 

Tay  River  San  Franci.sco 


Bengal 

India 

Brazil 

Italy 

California 

(ireat  Britain 

Egyi't 

Kentucky 

France 

Massachusetts 

CHAPTER  V 
THE  BRAVE  LITTLE  COUNTRY  OF  BELGIUM 

For  man}'^  years  Belgium  has  been  famous  for  her  flax, 
for  her  fine  linen  lace,  for  her  carpets,  named  for  the  capi- 
tal, Brussels,  for  her  wonderful  bulbs  and  seeds,  for  Iier 
great  commerce  with  many  different  parts  of  the  world,  and 
for  the  thrift  and  industry  of  her  people.  Since  the  World 
War,  however,  Belgium  is  remembered,  more  than  for  any- 
thing else,  for  lier  heroism  in  the  face  of  overwhelming 
odds,  for  the  terrible  suffering  of  her  people  during  the 
four  long  years  of  fighting,  and  for  the  awful  devastation 
and  ruin  left  behind  by  the  German  invaders. 

In  1914  Belgium  saved  the  world  from  a  German  victory 
and  all  the  horrors  which  such  a  victory  would  have  meant. 
Through  Belgium  lay  the  easiest  route  from  Germany  into 
France.  For  years  Germany  had  been  planning  for  tlie 
war  and  had  evervthing  in  readiness-  France  was  not  so 
prepared,  nor  England  ;  and  Germany  planned  to  march 
her  armies  quickly  through  Belgium  into  France  and  take 
Paris  before  the  French  could  be  ready  to  stop  her.  This 
done,  an  attack  on  England  would  come  next.  Witli  these 
two  western  nations  at  her  mercy,  Germany  would  then 
turn  her  attention  to  the  East  and  hurl  her  full  strength 
against  Russia.  Tlie  carrying  out  of  these  plans  meant 
victory.  They  all  depended,  however,  on  haste,  on  the 
capture  of   Paris   before   the   French  army  was  ready  to 

65 


66  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES —  EUROPE 

defend  it.  The  Germans  never  anticipated  that  their 
well-made    plans    would    be   upset    by    little    Belgium. 

Some  years  before,  the  Great  Powers  of  Europe  had 
signed  a  treaty  to  the  effect  that  they  would  respect  Bel- 
gium's neutrality ;  that  is,  that  they  would  not  take  their 
armies  through  her  territory  to  attack  another  nation.  In 
case  any  one  of  them  did  so,  it  was  Belgium's  duty  to  do 
her  best  to  prevent  it.  Few  people  thought  that  Germany 
would  be  so  dishonorable  as  to  break  her  word  which  she 
had  solemnly  pledged  in  this  treaty,  but  when  the  treaty 
interfered  with  her  plans,  slie  regarded  it  only  as  a  mere 
"  scrap  of  paper "  and  started  her  army  through  Belgium 
mto  France. 

Belgium  in  her  turn  might  have  broken  her  pledge, 
might  have  kept  still  and  allov'ed  the  German  army  to  go 
on  its  way  unmolested  and  so  saved  herself  the  awful 
destruction  and  suffering  which  came  to  her.  But  Belgium 
was  too  honorable  to  do  this.  She  knew  that  her  little 
army  could  not  long  hold  back  the  hordes  of  German 
soldiers,  but  she  prepared  to  do  her  best.  One  after  another 
her  strongly  fortified  cities  —  Liege,  Xamur,  Antwerp  — 
fell  before  the  German  attacks  and  the  awful  onslauo-ht  of 
her  big  guns,  but  the  little  Belgian  army,  inspired  by 
their  hero-king,  Albert,  who  preferred  ruin  and  death  to 
dishonor,  fought  on.  By  the  time  that  the  Germans  had 
succeeded  in  conquering  the  Belgians,  the  French  were 
ready,  the  English  were  ready,  and  Paris  was  saved.  Ger- 
many never  forgave  Belgium,  however,  for  the  delay  to 
her  armies  and  the  consequent  upsetting  of  her  plans. 

Throughout  the  war  Belgium  was  terribly  punished  for 
what  she  had  done.    With  the  exception  of  a  very  small 


THE  BRAVE  LITTLE  COUNTRY  OF  BELGIUM       67 

area,  near  Ostend,  all  of  brave  King  Albert's  country  was 
in  German  hands,  and  for  four  long  years  tliey  committed 
every  kind  of  atrocity  on  cities,  industries,  and  people. 
Under  the  name  of  indemnity  they  levied  blackmail  on 
the  cities ;  they  set  fire  to  the  towns,  destroyed  priceless 
treasures,  killed  old  men  and  women  and  little  children,  and 
sent  others  away  into  Germany  to  toil  in  factories  and  on 


EiG.  27.    Suppose  this  avkkb  youu  Home 


farms  until  they  died.  The  German  occupation  of  Belgium 
during  the  World  War  was  one  long  horror.  It  will  be 
many  years  before  some  of  the  Belgian  villages  and  towns 
are  rebuilt,  before  her  industries  flourish  as  they  did  before 
1914.  Can  you  imagine  returning  to  your  home  and  find- 
ing not  one  single  building  standing  in  the  town  ?  Can 
you  imagine  yourself  unable  to  find  where  the  streets  were 
or  to  locate  the  place  where  you  had  lived  all  your  life  ? 


68  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 

Yet  this  was  the  condition  of  some  Beloian  and  French  towns 
and  villages  which  lay  in  the  path  of  the  (iernians.  Per- 
haps you  remember  some  woods  where  you  liked  to  play. 
Imagine  returning  to  them  after  a  short  absence  and  find- 
ing not  a  single  green  tree  in  sight.  If  you  liye  on  a  farm 
you  can  picture  the  smooth  cultiyated  lields,  the  growing 
crops,  and  the  waving  grain.  Imagine  these  fields  all 
rough  with  hills  and  holes,  covered  with  barbed  wire,  and 
the  rich  soil  saturated  with  poison  gases.  The  holes  are 
of  all  sizes,  from  those  big  enough  for  you  to  play  in  to 
some  large  enough  for  your  house  to  stand  in.  So  you  see 
it  will  be  long  years  before  all  the  villages  of  Belgium 
and  northeastern  France  will  once  more  resound  with  the 
happy  voices  of  the  people  and  tlie  play  of  the  children 
It  will  be  many  returning  seasons  before  the  fields  in  some 
localities  are  again  green  with  growing  crops. 

Massachusetts   is   one    of  our  most  densely   populated 
states.    Belgium  contains  about  twice  as  many  people  as 
Massachusetts  in  an  area  less  than  one  and  one-half  times 
as  large.    Before  the  war  it  was  tlie  most  densely  popu- 
lated country  of  Europe,  and  though  it  is  so  small,  it  held 
fifth  place  among  the  commercial  nations  of  the  world. 
"~^^The  northern   and   southern    parts   of  Belgium  are   as 
/     different  from  each  other  as  the  fertile  plains  of  Kansas  are 
different  from  the  mining  regions  of  Pennsylvania.    In  the 
days  of  its  prosperity  some  one  called  southern  Belgium  a 
great  factory  district,  smoky,  dusty,  and  disagreeable,  and  the 
northern  half  a  market  garden,  flat,  fertile,  and  green.   Is  it 
not  terrible  that  war  should  lay  waste  so  prosperous  a  region  ? 
Southern  Belgium  is  the  industrial  part  of  the  country. 
Here  there  are  rich  deposits  of  coal  and  iron,  and  important 


THE  BRAVE  LITTLE  COUNTRY  OF  BELGIUM       69 

manufactures  are  carried  on  in  the  cities  and  towns.  Coal 
is  the  principal  product  of  Belgium,  and  in  the  mountainous 
southern  part  mining  has  long  been  a  leading  occupation. 
When  the  Germans  retreated  from  southern  Belgium  they 
wreaked  such  destruction  on  some  of  these  mines  that  it 
will  be  years  before  they  can  be  worked  again. 

The  people  in  northern  Belgium  are  very  different  from 
those  in  the  south.  In  the  northern  part  live  the  Flemings, 
a  light-haired,  blue-eyed  race,  more  like  the  people  of 
Holland  than  those  of  southern  Belo-ium. 

In  the  northern  half  of  the  country  most  of  the  people 
earn  their  living  ffoiii  their  tiny  farms,  which  in  some 
cases  seem  scarcely  larger  than  good-sized  lawns.  Long- 
before  sunris^th^^egi'X  tlieir  Tlay's  work  Tnthe  fields, 
the  women  wearing  heavy,  clumsy  wooden  shoes,  called 
sabots,  with  coarse  woolen  stockings,  short,  full  skirts,  and 
linen  sunbonnets,  each  with  a  sort  of  hood  which  falls  over 
the  forehead.  The  men  wear  wooden  shoes,  short  trousers, 
and  dark  blue  smocks  or  blouses. 

Their  simple  breakfast  consists  of  rye  bread  and  coffee. 
For  dinner  they  have  more  rye  bread  spread  with  butter  or 
butterine,  and  perhaps  a  piece  of  cheese  or  bacon.  For 
supper  the  rye  bread  is  supplemented  by  a  soup  made  of 
vegetables  and  meat.  If  they  live  near  a  city  the  men  usually 
find  work  in  some  mill  or  factory,  while  the  women  tend  the 
cow,  feed  the  pig,  and  raise  the  vegetables  on  the  little  farm. 

It  is  in  northern  Belgium  that  many  interesting  old 
cities  are  located.  One  of  these  is  Ghent,  with  its  pic- 
turesque gateway,  its  curious  old  buildings  dating  from  the 
Middle  Ages,  its  rambling  streets,  and  its  dark  canals. 
The  city  of  Ghent  is  not  so  important  now  as  it  was  in 


70  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 

the  bygone  days,  when  it  was  the  proud  capital  of  ancient 
Flanders  and  one  of  the  chief  cities  of  Europe. 

Brussels  is  the  capital  of  Belgium.  Its  broad  boulevards, 
its  avenues  lined  with  ancient  lime  trees,  its  parks  and 
forests,  its  fountains  and  statues,  its  magnificent  Palace 
of  Justice,  and  its  Grand  Place,  or  public  square,  make  it 
one  of  the  most  beautiful  cities  of  the  world.  On  one  side 
of  the  Grand  Place  stands  the  Hotel  de  Ville,  or  City 
Hall.  It  was  built  a  half  century  before  America  was  dis- 
covered and  is  one  of  the  famous  buildings  of  Europe. 
On  the  Grand  Place  there  are  other  interesting  buildings 
several  centuries  old.  In  the  square  inclosed  by  these 
buildings,  markets  are  held  in  the  early  morning  hours. 
You  would  like  to  visit  the  bird  market.  Such  a  chirping 
and  trilling  and  whistling  and  singing  as  you  never  before 
heard  comes  from  the  hundreds  of  canaries,  thrushes,  par- 
rots, mocking  birds,  and  nightingales.  The  flower  market 
is  fully  as  interesting.  Enormous  quantities  of  roses,  pinks, 
lilies,  violets,  and  other  exquisite  blossoms  fill  the  air  with 
their  fragrance. 

The  Palace  of  Justice  in  Brussels  is  the  finest  building 
in  all  Belgium,  perhaps  in  all  Europe.  It  stands  in  the 
newer,  higher  part  of  the  city,  and  its  central  tower  rises 
nearly  four  hundred  feet  above  the  low  hill  on  which  it  is 
located.  The  building  cost  more  than  ten  million  dollars. 
It  is  in  the  form  of  a  square  which  measures  six  hundred 
feet  on  a  side.  Find  out  how  far  six  hundred  feet  would 
extend  from  your  schoolhouse  and  estimate  how  much 
space  this  splendid  building  covers. 

In  the  great  World  War  the  Belgians  realized  the  im- 
possibility of  defending  Brussels  from  German  invasion. 


THE  BRAVE  LITTLE  COUNTRY  OF  BELGIUM       71 

Therefore  they  surrendered  the  city  in  order  to  preserve 
its  beauties  and  treasures  for  future  generations. 

Brussels  is  a  popular  residence  for  the  well-to-do  people 
of  Belgium,  and  it  is  also  important  as  a  manufacturing 
city.  It  has  long  been  noted  for  the  making  of  exquisite 
linen  lace  and  the  manufacture  of  carpets.  Printing  and 
all  other  departments  of  bookmaking  give  employment  to 
many  of  its  people,  and  breweries,  distilleries,  sugar  refiner- 
ies, foundries,  mills,  and  factories  make  it  a  busy  industrial 
city.  It  is  connected  by  canals  with  other  Belgian  cities  and 
with  the  North  Sea.  These  waterways  help  in  its  commerce 
with  other  parts  of  Belgium  and  with  other  countries. 

About  fifteen  miles  from  Brussels  lie  the  rums  of  the 
old  university  city  of  Louvain  with  its  record  of  five  hun- 
dred years  of  learning.  Its  town  hall  was  one  of  the  gems 
of  Gothic  architecture.  Its  university  was  founded  half  a 
century  before  America  Avas  discovered  and  was,  up  to  the 
time  of  its  destruction  in  1914,  the  most  famous  Catholic 
university  in  the  world  and  attracted  students  from  every 
country.  Louvain  was  a  peaceful,  quiet,  undefended  city, 
yet,  by  order  of  a  German  official,  it  was  systematically 
destroyed.  The  men  were  made  prisoners,  the  women  and 
children  were  deported,  and  the  German  soldiers  were 
given  bombs  with  whicli  to  demolish  the  buildings. 

Bruges  is  another  interesting  old  place.  Three  centuries 
ago  and  more  Bruges  was  wealthier  and  of  greater  im- 
portance than  Antwerp.  Vessels  from  the  far  distant  East 
and  from  the  then  powerful  Italian  cities  of  Venice  and 
Genoa  unloaded  their  rich  cargoes  on  its  wharves.  To-day 
the  city  is  of  much  less  importance,  but  is  still  a  center 
of   some   canal  commerce.     More  than  fifty  bridges  span 


72 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  —  EUROPE 


the  waterways.   The  word  Bruges  means  ''  bridges,''  and  the 

city  received  its  name  from  the  number  which  it  contains. 

Longfellow  wrote   a  beautiful  poem  about  the  famous 

old  belfry  of  Bruges,  which,  though  ''  thrice  consumed  and 


©  Keystone  Vie\'. 

Fig.  28.    Many  of  the  Carts  are   drawn  by  Dogs 


thrice  rebuilded,  still  it  watches  o'er  the  town.''  In  the 
poem  he  sees  in  imagination  the  former  grandeur  of  the 
city,  its  busy  life,  and  the  great  traffic  which  was  once 
carried  on  throuo-h  its  doors. 


THE  BRAVE   LITTLE  COUNTllY  OF  BELGIUM       73 

Some  one  lias  called  Antwerp  the  window  of  Belgium. 
A  better  name  for  it  would  be  the  door,  for  through  it 
passes  nearly  all  the  seagoing  trade  of  tlie  country.  This  is 
so  great  that  Antwerp  ranks  as  the  second  commercial  port 
on  the  contment  of  Europe,  Hamburg  alone  surpassing  it. 

AYe  sail  about  fifty  miles  up  the  Scheldt  River,  which  is 
more  like  an  arm  of  the  sea  than  a  river,  before  we  arrive 
at  the  city.  We  are  astonished  at  the  amount  of  shipping, 
and  at  the  many  acres  of  docks  and  quays  crowded  with 
vessels  whose  masts  rise  like  a  forest  and  whose  flags  repre- 
sent nearly  all  the  important  nations  of  the  world.  They 
have  brought  to  Antwerp  pi'oducts  of  every  clime,  —  ivory 
and  rubber  from  Africa,  oil  and  breadstuffs  from  the  United 
States,  wheat  from  Russia,  coifee  from  Brazil,  lumber  from 
Scandinavian  countries,  and  many  other  luxuries  and  neces- 
sities. These  same  vessels  will  carry  to  far-away  countries 
the  products  of  the  mines,  the  farms,  and  the  factories  of 
Belgium  and  the  imports  from  her  colonies. 

A  network  of  canals  connects  Antwerp  and  the  Scheldt 
River  with  other  cities  and  waterways.  We  can  go  by  boat 
to  the  Rhine  or  Meuse  rivers,  or  even  find  our  way  by  water 
.to  the  Rhone  River  and  thence  to  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  , 
"^^  To  reach  the  famous  flax -growing  district  of  Belgium  we  ^ 
follow  the  Scheldt  River  down  to  Ghent.  Many  canals, 
shaded  by  endTessT61vs~df~i:onil3ardy  poplars,  lead  off  from 
the  river  into  the  flat,  fertile  country,  which  is  dotted  with 
low  cottages  with  red- tiled  roofs.  /^no  H  tui-f^t 

Many  of  the  milk  and  vegetable  carts  in  Belgium^^are 
drawn  by  dogs.  These  are  sometimes  driven  between  the 
shafts  or  three  abreast  like  horses.  Sometimes  they  are 
harnessed  behind  the  cart  or  beneath  it.    Most  of  the  dog 


74 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 


teams  that  we  see  are  driven  by  women,  and  there  are  many 
women  and  girls,  as  well  as  men,  working  in  the  fields. 

Continuing  on  our  way,  we  follow  the  valley  of  the  river 
Lys,  a  branch  of  the  Scheldt,  down  to  Courtrai,  where  the 
banks  are  crowded  with  factories  and  warehouses.    This  is 


I  Uuderwood  &  Underwood 

Fig.  29.    Tuk  Fikek  is  ketted  in  the  River  Lys 


the  famous  flax -growing  region  of  Belgium.  Nearly  every 
farmer  in  tlie  valley  raises  flax,  which  is  of  so  fine  a  quality 
that  the  annual  product  is  often  of  more  value  than  the 
land  on  which  it  was  grown.  The  water  in  the  river  Lys,  in 
which  the  fiber  is  retted,  contains  just  the  right  elements 
to  make  it  clean,  silky,  smooth,  and  of  a  lustrous  color. 


THE  BRAVE  LITTLE  COUNTRY  OF  BELGIUM       75 


TOPICS  FOR  STUDY 


1 


Contrast  between  northern  and  southern  Belgium. 


1.  Belgium  in  the  World  War 

2.  Devastation  in  Bela'ium. 
3 

4.  Cities  of  Belgium. 

5.  Destruction  of  Lou  vain. 

6.  The  port  of  Antwerp. 

7.  The  flax  industry  in  Belgium. 


II 

1.  Sketch  a  map  to  show  the  waters  sailed  on  in  a  voyage  from 
Belfast  to  Courtrai. 

2.  Name  the  waters  sailed  on  in  sending  to  Belgium  ivory  and 
rubber  fi'om  Africa;  oil  from  the  United  States;  wheat  from  Russia  ; 
coffee  from  Brazil;  lumber  from  Scandinavia.  Name  the  shipping 
port  in  each  country. 

3.  Contrast  in  appearance  and  occupations  the  northern  and 
southern  parts  of  Belgium. 

4.  Study  your  map  and  find  wliy  the  easier  route  from  Germany 
into  France  lay  through  Belgium  rather  than  farther  south. 

6.  On  the  map  of  the  Western  Front  (\x  12),  find  some  of  the  river 
valleys  that  the  armies  followed  and  in  which  many  battles  took  place. 
6.  What  historic  battle  ground  is  located  in  Belgium  ? 


HI 

Be  able  to  spell  and  pronounce  the  following  names.  Locate  each 
place  and  tell  what  was  said  of  it  in  this  and  in  any  previous  chaptei". 
Add  other  facts  if  possible. 


Africa 

Massachusetts 

Courtrai 

Lys  River 

Brazil 

Pennsylvania 

Ghent 

Mediterranean  Sea 

East  Indies 

Russia 

Hamburg- 

Meuse  River 

England 

Scandinavia 

Liege 

North  Sea 

Flanders 

Louvain 

Rhine  River 

France 

Antwerp 

Namur 

Rhone  River 

Germany 

Bruges 

Ostend 

Scheldt  River 

Kansas 

Brussels 

Paris 

CHAPTER  VI 
MANUFACTURING  ENGLAND 

Before  we  leave  the  British  Isles  for  our  tour  of  the 
Continent,  we  wish  to  see  something  of  England,  a  great 
manufacturing  and  commercial  center  of  the  world.  It  is 
such  a  small  country,  only  about  one  sixtieth  of  the  size  of 
the  United  States,  that  one  wonders  why  it  has  developed 
so  greatly  in  these  directions.  Let  us  search  for  some  of 
the  reasons. 

If  all  the  productive  land  of  the  United  States  were  to 
be  divided  equally  among  its  people,  each  person  would 
receive  about  fifteen  acres  of  farm  land  or  forests.  This  is 
more  than  enough  to  raise  the  products  necessary  to  feed, 
clothe,  and  shelter  the  entire  population.  Therefore  we 
are  not  dependent  upon  other  nations  for  our  supply 
of  life  necessities.  Let  us  see  how  it  is  in  some  European 
countries. 

If  all  the  productive  land  of  France  were  divided  in  the 
same  way,  every  man,  woman,  and  child  living  in  the  country 
would  receive  about  three  acres  apiece ;  in  Germany  each 
person  would  possess  nearly  two  acres ;  while  in  England 
the  people  are  so  many  and  the  island  is  so  small  that  less 
than  one  acre  could  be  given  to  each  person.  This  small 
amount  of  land  makes  the  people  dependent  upon  other 
countries  for  their  food  and  clothing  supplies,  for  in  such 
a  country  there  is  little  room  for  large  farms. 

76 


MANUFACTURING  ENGLAND  77 

It  is  said  that  if  all  outside  food  material  were  shut  out 
from  England  for  six  months  or  less,  her  people  would 
starve.  So,  to  a  degree  entirely  unknown  to  us,  with  our 
immense  wheat  and  corn  farms,  our  large  cotton  planta- 
tions, and  our  great  cattle  and  sheep  ranches,  European 
nations,  and  especially  England,  must  depend  on  other 
parts  of  the  world  for  raw  material  for  food  and  clothing. 

Unless  she  would  see  all  her  money  slowly  drift  to  other 
shores,  England  nnist  pay  for  her  imports  by  selling  manu- 
factured goods,  and  must  give  her  people  employment 
in  making  them.  England  exports  enormous  quantities  of 
manufactured  goods,  and  it  is  by  means  of  these  exports 
that  she  is  able  to  supply  three  times  as  many  people  as 
could  be  fed  from  the  products  of  her  own  soil. 

For  these  great  industries  nature  has  given  to  England 
every  advantage,  and  first  among  them  is  her  position.  The 
country  is  situated  in  the  northern  part  of  the  temperate 
zone,  in  a  latitude  where  there  are  long  hours  of  sunshine 
during  the  summer  months.  The  cold  of  winter  might  inter- 
fere with  the  carrymg  on  of  some  industries,  but  the  westerly 
winds,  warmed  by  the  Gulf  Stream,  temper  the  climate  to 
such  a  degree  that  England's  harbors  are  ice  free,  her  rivers 
are  navigable  all  the  year  round,  and  her  climate  is  a  moist 
one,  favorable  for  the  spinning  of  flax,  cotton,  and  wool. 

To  the  people  of  ancient  times  Britain  lay  upon  the  very 
edge  of  the  great  Sea  of  Darkness,  and  to  venture  on  this 
was  to  expose  one's  self  to  all  sorts  of  unknown  dangers. 
The  voyage  of  Columbus  and  the  discovery  of  a  continent 
to  the  west  put  England  in  the  center  rather  than  on  the 
edge  of  the  world,  and  she  forthwith  began  to  earn  her 
title  of  the  "  Mistress  of  the  Seas." 


78  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 

Separated  from  the  Continent  by  water,  she  was  disturbed 
less  than  other  European  nations  by  the  many  wars  that 
ravaged  the  mainland,  and  she  was  therefore  freer  to 
develop  her  industries. 

Look  at  the  map  and  see  how  deeply  the  coast  of  Great 
Britain  is  indented.  Some  of  her  river  mouths  are  really 
bays  penetrating  the  land,  and  though  the  rivers  are  small, 
the  tide  makes  most  of  them  navigable  for  some  distance. 

Notice  also  that  the  indentations  made  by  the  rivers  are 
in  several  cases  opposite  one  another,  thus  bringing  the 
coasts  and  the  important  seaports  much  nearer  together. 
The  most  important  of  such  pairs  of  rivers  are  the  Severn 
and  the  Thames,  with  Bristol  and  London  near  their  mouths; 
the  Mersey  and  the  H umber,  with  Liverpool  and  Hull  only 
about  one  hundred  miles  apart ;  the  Clyde,  with  the  city  of 
Glasgow,  and  the  Forth,  with  Edinburgh  and  its  port  of 
Leith  linking  the  east  and  the  west  coasts  together. 

Favored  thus  by  a  genial  climate,  by  a  convenient  sepa- 
ration from  warring  nations,  by  a  long  water  boundary  of 
some  two  thousand  miles,  by  good  harbors,  and  by  navi- 
gable rivers,  England  has  another  incentive  for  commerce  in 
the  great  number  of  her  foreign  colonies.  Though  England 
itself  is  only  one  sixtieth  as  large  as  the  United  States,  the 
entire  British  Commonwealth  of  Nations  is  large  enough 
to  cover  an  area  nearly  four  times  that  of  the  United 
States  and  contains  nearly  five  times  as  many  people.  In 
all  these  countries  England  finds  a  market  for  a  great 
variety  of  manufactured  goods,  which  she  can  supply  to 
better  advantage  than  any  other  nation. 

No  nation,  however,  can  become  great  in  manufacturing 
and  commerce  unless  nature  has  favored  her  in  yet  another 


MANUFACTURING  ENGLAND  79 

way.  Stored  deep  in  her  soil  there  must  be  fuel  to  sup- 
ply her  factories  and  mills,  and  there  must  be  also  rich 
deposits  of  iron  for  the  manufacture  of  machinery  and  other 
necessary  articles.  Although  other  countries  connected 
by  trade  may  possess  iron  in  great  abundance,  the  cost  of 
transporting  so  heavy  a  material,  and  one  that  must  be 
used  in  such  quantities,  is  too  great  to  allow  of  extensive 
manufactures. 

The  forests  with  which  England  was  at  one  time  largely 
covered  furnished  fuel  for  her  manufactories,  which  sprang 
up  in  any  place  where  charcoal  could  be  easily  supplied. 
Great  stretches  of  forests  have  disappeared  in  this  way. 
The  discovery  of  coal,  however,  in  large  measure  decided 
the  location  of  the  manufacturing  districts  of  England,  and 
her  great  industrial  cities  have  grown  up  near  the  deposits 
of  coal  and  iron.  On  account  of  the  size  of  the  country 
and  the  indented  coast  line,  the  mineral  deposits  and  the 
manufacturing  cities  lie  near  together  and  near  the  great 
seaports.  This  gives  to  England  a  great  advantage  over 
those  countries  whose  deposits  of  coal  and  iron  and  whose 
manufacturing  centers  lie  a  long  distance  away  fi-om  their 
seaports. 

Many  of  the  inventions  which  have  revolutionized  great 
industries  were  made  in  England  and  used  in  her  manufac- 
turmg  districts  for  years  before  other  nations  obtained  the 
secrets.  Among  the  more  important  inventions  which  have 
had  an  influence  in  developing  important  industries  are 
the  spinning  jenny,  which  makes  it  possible  for  a  person  to 
operate  more  than  one  spindle  at  a  time,  and  the  power 
loom,  in  which,  at  first,  water  power  and  then  steam  was 
applied  to  the  weaving  of  cloth.   The  invention  of  the  steam 


80 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 


engine  and  the  perfecting  of  Stephenson's  model  have  also 
had  a  great  effect  in  stimulating  English  manufactures. 

Thus  because  of  her  great  colonial  market,  her  rich  coal 
fields,  and  her  power  machinery,  England  obtained  a  tre- 
mendous start  in  manufacturing  and  commerce  over  other 
European  nations. 

The  greater  part  of  our  products  shipped  to  England 
enter  the  country  by  way  of  Liverpool.    Let  us  follow  our 


Fig.  30.    "The  Docks  of  Livekpool  auk  the  most  Wonderful  in 

THE  World  " 


\theat,  cotton,  wool,  cattle,  and  beef  into  the  country  through 
the  door  of  this  great  seaport  and  learn,  by  visiting  the  chief 
industrial  centers,  what  manufacturing  England  can  tell  us. 
Every  Cunarder,  every  White  Star  liner  that  docks  at 
Liverpool,  leaves  on  the  wharves  its  hundreds  and  thousands 
of  passengers.  Most  of  these  take  a  hurried  meal,  or  possi- 
bly spend  the  night,  and  then  rush  off  from  the  busy  port 
by  express  to  London  or  to  other  scenes.    We  will  make 


MANUFACTURING   ENGLAND  81 

a  longer  stop  and  discover,  if  we  can,  what  it  is  that  has 
made  this  city  one  of  the  greatest  seaports  in  the  world. 

Our  liner  steams  slowly  up  the  Mersey  to  the  docks  of 
Liverpool,  which  extend  in  a  semicircle  along  the  left  bank 
of  the  river,  three  miles  from  its  mouth.  We  see  forests  of 
masts  and  funnels,  and  pass  tugs  pouring  out  clouds  of  black 
smoke  as  they  pull  along  some  giant  of  the  deep.  We  glide 
slowly  by  dozens  of  arriving  or  departing  steamers  anchored 
in  midstream.  There  are  vessels  loaded  with  wheat  from 
Montreal  and  Duluth,  steamer  loads  of  cotton  from  (Jal- 
veston  and  New  Orleans  and  from  far-away  Bombay  aiid 
ancient  Alexandria.  The  holds  of  the  steamers  from  South 
America  and  Africa  are  filled  with  wool  from  the  alpacas 
of  Peru  and  from  the  Angora  goats  of  Cape  Colony.  We 
should  find  wine  from  Portugal,  olive  oil  and  silk  from  Italy, 
fruits  and  vegetables  from  France,  cork  from  Spain,  sugar 
from  the  Bahamas,  lumber  from  our  Southern  states,  and 
wool  from  the  great  sheep  ranches  in  the  West.  We  are 
bewildered  as  we  look  at  the  crowd  of  tramp  steamers, 
schooners,  ocean  liners,  and  barges,  and  try  to  guess  their 
cargoes  and  their  sailing  ports.  More  than  twenty  thousand 
vessels  of  all  kinds  and  descriptions,  from  every  corner  of 
the  world,  enter  and  leave  the  harbor  annually. 

The  docks  of  Liverpool  are  the  most  wonderful  in  the 
world.  They  extend  for  six  or  seven  miles  along  the  river 
and  are  lined  witli  warehouses,  elevators,  derricks,  and 
cranes.  Vessels  from  all  over  the  world  stop  at  them,  but 
those  from  America  far  outnumber  all  the  rest. 

Truly  Liverpool  is  a  city  of  ships  and  sailors,  but  as  we 
go  from  the  wharves  up  into  the  city  we  see  that  it  is  a  city 
of  manufactures  as  well.    Great  quantities  of  flour  are  made 


82 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 


here  from  the  wheat  that  grew  on  Canadian  farms  and  on  our 
Western  plains.  Sugar  refineries  convert  the  raw  sugar  from 
far-away  islands  into  the  pure,  white  article,  which  is  shipped 
away  in  great  quantities.  There  are  also  rope,  leather,  soap, 
paper,  and  glass  factories,  and  iron  and  steel  works,  the 
products  of  which  add  greatly   to  Liverpool's  commerce. 


Fig.  31.    The  Manchester  Ship  Canal  is  Large  enough  to 

ACCOMMODATE  OCEAN  StEAMERS 


You  are  doubtless  wondering  why  it  is  that  Liverpool  has 
grown  to  be  such  an  important  commercial  city,  why  it  is 
that  great  steamers  with  their  heavy  loads  seek  this  harbor 
rather  than  others  on  the  coast  of  England,  and  why  it  is 
that  thousands  of  vessels  fi^nd  cargoes  here  awaitmg  them 
to  be  carried  to  the  ends  of  the  earth. 

Other  things  besides  a  good  harbor  are  necessary  in  order 
that  a  city  may  grow  to  be  a  great  commercial  port.    The 


MANUFACTURING  ENGLAND 


83 


goods  brought  to  her  doors  must  be  disposed  of,  and  cargoes 
must  be  supplied  for  the  vessels  to  carry  away.  Therefore 
much  of  the  importance  of  a  seaport  depends  upon  the  sur- 
rounding country.  Let  us  go  farther  into  England  and  see 
what  the  interior  supplies  to  aid  Liverpool  in  her  trade. 

If  we  continue  our  journey  up  the  Mersey  as  far  as  East- 
ham,  we  shall  find  there  the  beginning  of  a  great  canal,  one  of 


Tig.  32.  The  Docks  at  Manchester  are  Larger  and  more  Numerous 
THAN  Many  an  Ocean  Port  can  boast  of 

the  most  important  in  the  world.  It  is  twenty-six  feet  deep 
and  twice  as  wide  as  the  Suez  Canal,  large  enough,  as  you 
see,  to  accommodate  ocean  steamers.  It  follows  the  valley 
of  the  Mersey  and,  later,  of  the  small  tributary  called  the 
Irwell.  After  a  trip  of  about  thirty-five  miles  our  boat  stops 
at  the  docks  in  the  heart  of  the  great  city  of  Manchester, 
the  center  of  the  textile-manufacturing  district  of  England. 


84  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 

We  are  astonished  at  the  docks  of  this  inland  city.  They 
are  larger  and  more  numerous  than  man}-  an  ocean  port  can 
boast  of.  All  around  we  see  every  facility  for  loading  and 
unloading  freight  and  for  hauvUing  goods  —  grain  elevators, 
warehouses,  electric  and  steam  cranes,  stockyards,  cold- 
storage  buildings,  great  spaces  for  timber,  iron,  and  other 
materials  not  requiring  cover,  and  oil  tanks  with  a  capacity 
of  millions  of  gallons,  so  situated  as  to  permit  of  steamers 
discharging  directly  into  them.  The  docks  and  wharves 
are  completely  covered  with  a  network  of  railways. 

We  are  in  the  county  of  Lancashire,  famous  the  world 
over  for  cotton  spinning  and  weaving.  This  industry,  which 
furnishes  such  a  large  part  of  the  cotton  goods  needed  in 
the  world,  has  been  built  up  over  rich  coal  deposits  and 
near  the  seaport  of  Liverpool,  through  which  the  raw  mate- 
rial can  be  imported  and  the  finished  goods  shipped  away. 
In  "  Cottonopolis  "  every  town  and  city  is  more  or  less  de- 
pendent upon  cotton  manufacturing,  and  five  hundred  fifty 
thousand  people,  a  number  about  equal  to  the  population 
of  Baltimore,  Maryland,  find  employment  in  the  numerous 
occupations  connected  with  it. 

Not  one  of  the  principal  railways  of  England  could  earn 
a  dividend  if  disaster  were  to  overtake  the  cotton-milling 
industry  of  Lancashire ;  such  a  calamity  would  bring  pov- 
erty to  the  people,  paralyze  Great  Britain's  ocean  commerce, 
and  work  immense  damage  to  all  the  industrial  interests 
of  the  country. 

More  of  the  actual  manufacturing  of  the  cotton  is  carried 
on  in  the  smaller  places  around  Manchester  than  in  the 
city  itself,  and  the  goods  are  carried  by  rail  or  by  canal  to 
the  Manchester  docks  for  shipping.    Some  of  the  towns 


MANUFACTURING  ENGLAND 


85 


specialize  in  the  kinds  of  goods  made.  One  place,  perhaps, 
makes  shirtings,  another  muslins,  while  another  manufac- 
tures chiefly  heavy  cotton  dress  goods.  Many  of  the  work- 
men have  been  trained  for  generations  in  some  particular 
line.  Frequently  they  are  doing  the  same  work  to-day  that 
their  fathers  and  grandfathers  did  before  them,  and  as  a 
consequence,  they  have 
become  highly  skilled. 

All  the  towns  in 
the  Manchester  district 
are  of  modern  growth, 
and  the  cotton  industry 
feeds,  clothes,  and  fur- 
nishes employment  for 
the  entire  population. 
Each  town  is  made  up 
of  the  warehouse  where 
the  cotton  is  stored,  the 
great  factories,  the  cot- 
tages of  the  workmen,  and  the  finer  houses  of  the  manu- 
facturers. Manchester,  the  center  of  "  Cottonopolis,"  is 
about  as  large  as  St.  Louis  and,  since  the  building  of  the 
Ship  Canal,  is  increasing  in  size  very  rapidly. 

A  large  part  of  the  cotton  used  in  the  district  comes 
from  the  United  States.  Much  of  this  is  now  shipped 
without  unloading  from  Galveston  or  New  Orleans  to  the 
Manchester  docks.  Great  quantities  are  carried  to  the 
different  mills  or  warehouses  in  huge  drays  drawn  by 
some  of  the  largest  horses  you  ever  saw,  and  the  rattling 
of  the  heavy  teams  over  the  cobble-paved  streets  keeps  up 
a  continual  racket. 


Fig.  33.     Cotton    Goods    are    caukieu 

BY  Rail  or  Canal  to  the  Manchester 

Docks  for  Shipping 


86  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 

The  ''  double-decked  "  street  cars,  or  trams,  look  queer  to 
our  American  eyes,  but  the  seats  on  top  make  sight-seeing 
easy,  and  we  climb  to  our  places  there  for  a  ride  tln-ough 
the  city.  We  pass  great  warehouses  where  bales  of  cotton 
are  being  unloaded  from  the  heavy  drays.  We  see  the 
busy  factories  filled  with  whirring  machinery.  One  of 
these  buildings  is  so  large  that  in  it  between  thirty  and 
forty  miles  of  cloth  a  yard  wide  are  v/oven  every  day.  We 
ride  by  rows  of  small  brick  houses  in  which  mill  operatives 
live,  and  which  seem  more  comfortable  than  tall  tenement 
blocks. 

Our  ride  takes  us  out  into  the  residential  part  of  the  city, 
filled  with  the  beautiful  houses  of  well-to-do  families,  and 
past  several  pretty  parks  where  children  are  enjoying  the 
shade  and  the  green  grass.  Manchester  has  more  than 
thirty  such  breathing  spaces  for  the  use  of  her  people. 

We  pass  some  of  the  fine  buildings  of  the  technical 
schools,  which  the  city  maintains  at  great  expense.  Many 
skilled  workmen  are  needed  in  her  industrial  establishments, 
and  hundreds  of  them  are  trained  in  these  schools. 

As  we  come  back  to  the  center  of  the  city  we  stop  at  the 
Cotton  Exchange  ^  a  great  building  with  a  beautiful  portico, 
dome,  towers,  and  an  immense  hall,  said  to  be  the  largest 
in  England.  Its  floor  covers  an  area  of  more  than  four  thou- 
sand square  yards.  Can  you  reckon  the  number  of  square 
yards  in  your  schoolroom  floor  and  then  find  how  many 
times  larger  this  great  hall  is  ?  On  Tuesday  and  Friday  of 
each  week  more  than  lialf  of  the  ten  thousand  members 
of  the  Exchange  meet  and  transact  an  enormous  amount 
of  business.  On  those  days  we  could  see  cotton  merchants 
manufacturers  of  yarn  and  cloth,  dyers,  finishers,  printers, 


MANUFACTURING  ENGLAND  87 

packers,  builders  of  mill  machinery,  and  representatives  of 
every  industrial  activity  related  to  the  cotton  trade. 

In  the  galleries  are  telegraph  instruments  and  telephones, 
and  the  Exchange  is  in  constant  touch  with  Liverpool  and 
New  York.  By  an  electrical  device  the  prices  and  sales  of 
cotton  at  those  two  controlling  points,  as  well  as  the  condi- 
tion of  the  market  at  other  places,  are  promptly  displayed 
on  an  immense  blackboard  which  extends  across  one  end  of 
the  great  room,  in  figures  large  enough  to  be  easily  read 
from  every  part  of  the  floor.  The  business  of  the  Exchange 
is  transacted  without  confusion  or  excitement,  and  without 
noise  other  than  a  continuous  hum  natural  to  conversation 
being  carried  on  by  several  thousand  persons. 

Looking  at  the  map,  you  notice  that  the  Pennme  Moun- 
tains extend  north  and  south  through  the  northern  half  of 
England.  On  the  slopes  of  this  range  lie  two  of  the  great 
coal  fields  of  the  country.  The  third  important  deposit  is 
in  the  northeastern  part  of  England,  around  Newcastle,  and 
as  a  consequence  a  great  manufacturing  center  has  grown 
up  in  that  section. 

Near  the  coal  field  on  the  western  slope  of  the  Pennine 
Range,  around  Manchester,  the  great  cotton  industry  has 
been  built  up ;  and  over  the  deposits  of  the  eastern  slope 
has  grown  up  the  wool-manufacturing  center. 

The  woolen  industry  is  one  of  the  oldest  and  most  impor- 
tant of  the  countr}'.  At  the  time  that  the  Pilgrims  were 
fighting  their  Indian  battles  in  the  little  towns  of  New  Eng- 
land, and  the  colonists  of  Virginia  were  beginning  to  find 
the  wealth  of  their  soil  in  tobacco,  the  English  farmers  were 
largely  engaged  in  raising  sheep.  At  that  time  this  was  their 
chief  source  of  wealth,  and  England  was  the  only  important 


88  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 

wool-producing  country  of  northern  Europe.  Most  of  the 
wool  was  sent  across  the  water  to  Flanders,  then  the  chief 
manufacturing  center  of  Europe,  now  a  part  of  Belgium, 
Holland,  and  France.  Bruges  and  Ghent,  cities  which  still 
have  a  flavor  of  their  old  history,  manufactured  most  of 
the  English  wool. 

It  seems  queer  to  us  in  these  days  of  freedom  of  thought 
to  learn  that  religious  quarrels  had  a  tremendous  effect  on 
English  industries.  But  so  it  Avas.  Three  or  four  centuries 
ago  Protestants  were  persecuted  when  sovereigns  of  the 
Catholic  religion  were  on  the  thrones  of  different  countries, 
and  when  the  Protestants  came  into  power  they  perse- 
cuted the  Catholics.  The  Catholics  were  the  ruling  class  in 
Flanders  and  France  when  England  had  a  Protestant  gov- 
ernment; therefore  many  Protestant  workmen,  skilled  in 
various  trades,  fled  from  the  persecutions  in  the  Catholic 
countries  to  England.  Here  they  could  live  and  work  safelv. 
Before  that  time  England  had  l:>eeu  almost  exclusively  an 
agricultural  and  pastoral  country,  exporting  its  raw  wool 
and  importing  manufactured  goods.  Gradually  this  state  of 
things  changed,  and  more  and  more  manufacturing  was  done 
at  home  until,  in  time,  manufactured  cloth  and  j^arns  were 
exported,  and  as  the  home  supply  became  insufficient,  raw 
wool  had  to  be  imported.  At  the  present  time  more  than 
nine  hundred  million  pounds  of  wool  are  sent  annually  by 
other  nations  to  Great  Britain.  Two  thirds  of  this  comes 
from  the  British  colonies,  and  the  remainder  from  other 
wool-producing  countries  in  Europe  and  other  continents. 
It  is  estimated  that  from  this  immense  quantity  of  wool 
enough  cloth  can  be  made  to  stretch  a  curtain  more  than 
three  yards  wide  to  the  moon. 


MANUFACTURING  ENGLAND  89 

The  wool-manufacturing  industry  was  at  first  scattered 
over  the  country,  but  the  introduction  of  steam  meant  the 
use  of  coal,  and  gradually  the  factory  districts  became 
centered  north  of  the  River  Trent,  where  the  richest  coal 
deposits  lie. 

The  cities  of  Bradford  and  Leeds  with  the  surrounding 
towns  in  the  county  of  Yorkshire  make  up  the  most  im- 
portant wool-manufacturing  district  in  the  world.  Through 
Liverpool  and  London,  millions  of  pounds  of  wool  from 
Australia,  Africa,  South  America,  and  the  United  States, 
besides  great  quantities  from  England  and  Scotland,  are 
brought  to  the  wool  centers. 

Bradford  is  the  center  of  the  raw  wool  and  the  worsted 
trade.  Probably  five  sixths  of  all  the  wool  used  in  England 
is  handled  in  that  city,  and  the  greater  part  of  the  worsted 
yarns  and  cloth  are  made  there.  Most  of  the  woolen  cloth 
is  made  in  Leeds.  Both  woolen  and  worsted  cloths  are  made 
of  wool, — the  woolen  of  the  shorter  fiber,  the  worsted  of  the 
longer.  The  processes  in  preparing  the  fiber  differ  also. 
Fiber  for  woolen  cloth  is  carded,  while  that  for  worsted 
cloth  goes  through  the  additional  process  of  combing. 

From  your  study  of  the  great  textile  industries  of  the 
United  States  you  are  probably  familiar  with  the  spinning 
and  weaving  of  both  cotton  and  wool,  so  we  will  not  stop 
here  for  a  long  description.  You  remember  that  the  first 
process  through  which  the  wool  goes,  after  sorting,  is  the 
washmg,  or  "  scouring,"  as  it  is  sometimes  called.  ^Yool  is 
very  dirty  and  greasy  as  it  comes  to  the  mill,  and  in  the 
cleansing  it  often  loses  half  or  more  of  its  weight.  So 
much  wool  is  scoured  in  Bradford,  and  so  much  fatty  and 
other  matter  is  washed  out,  that  it  is  said  that  the  sewage 


90  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 

is  harder  to  dispose  of  than  that  of  any  other  city  in  the 
world.  Bradford,  like  some  other  English  cities,  owns  a  large 
establishment  where  great  quantities  of  fertilizer  are  made 
from  the  sewage.  This  is  sold  in  considerable  quantity,  and 
an  income  to  the  city  is  thus  derived  from  the  waste  matter. 

Bradford,  like  many  other  manufacturing  centers,  is  not 
very  attractive.  Great  dingy  mills,  in  which  many  of  the 
women  as  well  as  the  men  of  the  city  find  employment,  are 
ever3^where.  As  we  pass  by  dozens  of  mills  and  factories 
and  think  of  the  yards  and  yards  of  cloth  and  yarn  made 
in  each  one,  we  wonder  what  can  become  of  it  all.  Hun- 
dreds of  great  ships  sailing  every  week  from  Liverpool  and 
London  carry  it  to  all  parts  of  the  world,  and  thousands 
and  millions  of  people  have  coats  and  trousers  and  dresses, 
carpets  and  blankets,  made  from  Bradford  yarn  and  cloth. 

Leeds  is  only  eight  miles  east  of  Bradford.  It  is  situated 
on  the  little  river  Aire,  a  branch  of  the  Humber.  These 
two  streams  and  the  North  Sea  furnish  water  communica- 
tion with  the  continent  of  Europe,  while  the  Leeds  and 
Liverpool  Canal  opens  the  way  to  the  west  through  the 
Mersey  River  and  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 

The  old  forest,  in  which  centuries  ago  the  barbarians 
from  the  Continent  fought  the  Saxons,  has  long  since  dis- 
appeared, and  in  its  place  have  risen  factories  and  foun- 
dries, fine  public  buildings,  statues,  and  churches.  Li  the 
great  factories,  which  border  some  of  the  streets  of  the  city 
and  which  form  the  most  conspicuous  feature  of  the  towns 
around,  is  made  the  plain  cloth  for  the  use  of  the  army  and 
navy,  uniforms  for  the  police,  and  greenish-drab  khaki  cloth 
for  the  soldiers  stationed  in  tropical  countries.  In  the  ship- 
ping rooms  of  the  factories  we  should  also  find  numberless 


MANUFACTURING  ENGLAND  91 

packages  of  rainproof  cloth,  serges,  and  tweeds,  besides 
quantities  of  rugs,  carpets,  and  blankets. 

From  Leeds,  the  fifth  city  in  size,  our  trip  through  in- 
dustrial England  takes  us  southward  twenty-five  or  thirty 
miles  to  smoky  Sheffield,  the  sixth  city  in  population.  As 
we  pass  through  the  towns  and  villages  we  are  reminded 
of  the  Bible  story  which  tells  us  how  the  Israelites  were 
guided  in  their  long  journey  through  the  wilderness  by  a 
pillar  of  cloud  by  day  and  a  pillar  of  fire  by  night.  Heavy 
smoke  darkens  the  blue  heavens  in  the  daytime,  and  the 
flames  from  hundreds  of  furnaces  and  foundries  light  the 
sky  at  night.  Sheffield  is  situated  near  coal  and  iron  mines, 
and  where  sandstone,  especially  good  for  grinding,  is  found. 
It  is  at  the  junction  of  the  Don  and  Sheaf  rivers,  branches 
of  the  Humber,  and  the  name  "Sheffield"  is  probably  short- 
ened from  "  Sheaf -field."  The  city  is  the  great  manufacturing 
center  of  the  northern  portion  of  the  so-called  "  Black 
Country,"  just  as  Birmingham,  which  we  will  visit  later,  is 
of  the  southern  part. 

While  Sheffield  is  one  of  the  largest  and  most  important 
towns  of  the  county  of  Yorkshire,  it  is  also  one  of  the 
blackest,  dirtiest,  and  most  disagreeable.  But  iron  and  steel 
cannot  be  manufactured  without  smoke  and  dirt,  and  the 
words  '''  Sheffield"  and  "  iron  and  steel  "  have  been  connected 
since  the  earliest  times.  The  city  is  picturesquely  situated 
on  hills,  on  whose  wooded  slopes  are  old  estates  and  man- 
sions of  the  nobility.  A  ride  through  Sheffield  shows  us 
fine  public  buildings,  libraries,  churches,  parks,  and  gar- 
dens. But  these  do  not  impress  the  visitor  so  much  as  the 
hundreds  of  chimneys  rising  like  a  dead  forest,  the  pall  of 
smoke  like  a  thundercloud  overspreading  the  sky,  and  the 


92  IXDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 

enormous  works  where  everything  that  one  can  think 
of,  made  from  iron  and  steel,  is  produced  —  saws,  razors, 
knives,  scissors,  plates  for  the  great  ironclad  warships,  and 
immense  shells  strong  enough  to  pierce  them,  railroad 
rails,  cannon,  and  delicate  watch  springs.  Sheffield  ware 
has  been  used  since  those  early  days  when  the  Romans 
invaded  England,  when  wood  was  the  only  fuel,  and  when 
the  workshops  were  situated  in  the  great  forests.  And 
Sheffield  ware  will  be  used  until  the  time,  far  in  the  future, 
when  the  coal  pits  and  iron  mines  will  no  longer  yield  the 
necessary  material. 

From  Sheffield  we  go  southward  through  the  Black 
Country  to  Birminsfham.  Everywhere  are  the  tall  chim- 
neys  and  tlie  smoky  sky,  for  in  all  the  towns  and  cities 
through  which  we  pass  there  are  manufactures  of  iron  and 
steel  or  cotton  and  wool.  At  the  foot  of  the  Pennine  Hills 
we  pass  through  Derby,  famous  for  its  silk  manufactures. 
The  peculiar  properties  of  the  water  of  that  region  make 
a  fast,  lustrous  dye  which  has  given  to  the  Derby  silks 
their  high  reputation. 

Ten  or  a  dozen  miles  east  of  Derby  is  Nottingham,  the 
great  industrial  center  for  stockings  and  lace.  So  famous 
is  it  for  machine-made  laces  that  Calais,  across  the  English 
Channel,  another  of  the  great  lace-manufacturing  cities  of 
Europe,  is  often  called  the  Nottingham  of  France. 

Farther  south  we  see  on  our  right  the  smoke  from  the 
woolen  mills  of  Leicester,  and  soon  after  we  arrive  in 
Birmingham.    An  old  historian  says  of  Birmingham : 

The  Arab  eats  with  a  Birmiugham  spoon,  the  Egyptian  takes  his 
bowl  of  sherbet  from  a  Birmingham  tray,  the  American  Indian 
shoots  with  a  Birmingham  rifle,  the  Hindoo  dines  on  a  Birmingham 


MANUFACTURING  ENGLAND 


93 


plate  and  sees  by  the  light  of  a  Birmingham  lamp.  The  South 
American  horsemen  wear  Birmingham  spurs  and  gaudily  deck 
their  jackets  with  Birmingham  buttons.  The  West  Indian  cuts 
down  his  sugar  cane  with  Birmingham  hatchets  and  presses  out 
the  juice  into  Birmingham  vats  and  coolers.  The  German  lights 
his  pipe  on  a  Birmingham  tinder-box,  and  the  emigrant  cooks 
his  dinner  in  a  Birmingham  sauce-pan,  over  a  Birmingham  stove. 


Fig.  84.     In  the  Newer  Portion  or  BiiniixcaiAM  there  are  Fixe 
Streets  and  Splendid  Tlblic  Buildings 

A  historian  of  to-day  might  add  that  astronomers  study 
the  stars  at  night  through  telescopes  fitted  with  Bir- 
mingham lenses ;  architects  decorate  churches  and  other 
buildings  with  Birmingham  stained  glass ;  armies  are 
supplied  with  Birmingliam  swords.  Women  in  many  parts 
of  the  world  wear  Birmingham  jewelry  and  sew  with 
Birmingham  needles  the  cloth  which  they  have  fastened 
together  with  Birmingham  pins.   Men  in  different  countries 


94  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 

drive  Birmingham  nails,  use  Birmingham  screws,  and  carry 
watches  containing  Birmingham  springs.  In  your  school 
very  likely  you  use  pens  which  were  made  in  this  Eng- 
lish city,  for  Gillott's  pens,  which  are  used  by  the  millions 
all  over  our  own  and  other  countries,  are  manufactured 

there. 

This  "'  Metalopolis"  is  smol^y  and  dirty.  In  the  old  part 
of  the  city  there  are  narrow,  crooked  streets,  dingy  houses, 
and  huge  factories  everywhere.  But  in  the  newer  portion 
there  are  fine  streets  and  splendid  public  buildings.  Bir- 
mingham has  the  enviable  reputation  of  being  one  of  the 
best-governed  cities  in  the  world. 

Situated  near  rich  iron  mines  and  in  the  heart  of  a 
great  forest,  Birmingham,  centuries  ago,  was  well  known 
for  its  metal  manufactures.  A  history  of  the  city  tells  us 
that  as  early  as  1727  fifty  thousand  people  were  employed 
in  them.  Since  tlie  use  of  steam  and  the  introduction 
of  coal,  of  which  there  are  rich  beds  near,  the  city  has 
grown  very  rapidly.  The  following  curious  old  verses 
published  in  1828  tell  of  its  rapid  growth.  An  old  name 
for   Birmingham  is  used. 

Full  twenty  years  and  more  are  past 

Since  I  left  Brummagem  ; 

But  I  set  out  for  home  at  last, 

To  good  old  Brummagem. 

But  every  place  is  altered  so, 

There 's  hardly  a  single  place  I  know ; 

And  it  fills  my  heart  with  grief  and  woe. 

For  I  can't  find  Brummagem. 

I  remember  one  John  Growse, 
A  buckle-maker  in  Brummagem. 
He  built  himself  a  country  house, 


MANUFACTURING  ENGLAND  95 

To  be  out  of  the  smoke  of  Brummagem. 
But  though  John's  country  house  stands  still, 
The  town  itself  has  walked  uphill, 
Now  he  lives  beside  a  smoky  mill, 
In  the  midst  of  Brummagem. 

London  is  one  hundred  twelve  miles  away  to  the  south- 
east, and  of  coarse  we  must  visit  that  city  before  leaving 
England.  The  ride  from  Birmingham  takes  us  through  a 
beautiful,  rolling  country  where  the  fine,  white  roads  are 
bordered  with  linden  trees,  and  the  fertile  fields  are  fenced 
with  green  hedgerows.  These  hedges  are  typical  of  English 
scenery.  You  remember  Priscilla,  when  sick  with  longing 
for  her  old  English  home,  says  to  John  Alden : 

I  have  been  thinking  all  day,  .  .  . 

Dreaming  all  night,  and  thinking  all  day,  of  the  hedgerows  in 

England,  — 
They  are  in  blossom  now,  and  the  couutry  is  all  like  a  garden. 

Once  in  a  while  we  catch  a  flying  glimpse  of  a  fine 
old  estate  and  see,  in  the  beautiful  green  park  shaded  by 
grand  old  oak  trees,  several  deer  raise  their  startled  heads 
as  we  fly  by. 

We  pass  near  Stratford-on-Avon,  where,  if  we  were 
visiting  literary  fields  instead  of  industrial  centers,  w^e 
should  stop  for  a  while  to  see  Shakespeare's  birthplace,  the 
school  he  attended,  and  the  memorial  erected  by  a  man 
from  Philadelphia  who  appreciated  his  genius.  We  could 
walk  through  the  very  path  in  which  the  great  poet  walked 
when  he  went  to  call  on  Anne  Hathaway,  wdio  afterwards 
became  his  wife.  We  could  visit  her  cottage  and  sit  on  the 
very  oak  settle  beside  the  fireplace  where  William  and  Anne 
probably  passed  many  long,  happy  winter  evenings. 


9G  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 

Near  by  is  Warwick  Castle,  one  of  the  few  old  feudal 
buildings  now  in  repair.  It  is  still  occupied  by  descendants 
of  the  noble  family  to  whom  it  was  given  by  the  ruler  of 
England.  Only  a  few  miles  away  is  Kenilworth  Castle, 
whose  ruins  have  been  immortalized  in  the  novel  of  the 
same  name  by  Sir  Walter  Scott. 

Before  we  go  to  London  let  us  visit  the  two  famous  uni- 
versity towns  of  Cambridge  and  Oxford.  Our  institutions 
are  so  young  that  it  seems  strange  to  think  of  English 
young  men  going  to  school  to-day  in  the  old  buildings, 
climbing  the  worn  stairs,  and  playing  in  the  green  courts 
in  which  English  boys  worked  and  played  before  America 
was  discovered.  The  oldest  of  the  buildings  connected  with 
Oxford  University  dates  back  to  12(34,  and  the  most  an- 
cient college  in  Cambridge  is  but  twenty  years  younger. 

At  last  we  reach  London,  next  to  New  York  the  largest  city 
in  the  world.  It  is  hard  to  imagine  how  immense  it  really 
is.  It  contains  as  many  people  as  the  New  England  States, 
and  covers  seven  hundred  square  miles.  Find  the  area  of 
your  home  town  and  see  how  many  times  larger  London  is. 

Enough  babies  are  born  within  its  boundaries  every  year 
to  make  a  city  with  a  population  larger  than  that  of  Kansas 
City,  Missouri.  It  is  said  that  London  contains  more  Irish- 
men than  Dublin,  more  Scotchmen  than  Edinburgh,  and 
more  Jews  than  Palestine.  Its  streets,  if  laid  out  in  a 
straight  line,  would  reach  from  New  York  to  San  Francisco 
and  thence  across  the  Pacific  Ocean  to  Japan. 

It  would  take  you  nearly  two  years  to  walk  through 
all  the  highways  of  London,  and  you  would  see  many 
interesting  and  wonderful  sights  ui  the  course  of  your 
journey.    On  many  of  the  streets  your  progress  would  be 


MANUFACTURING  ENGLAND 


97 


slow  because  of  the  crowds.  As  we  drive  through  some  of 
these  busy  thoroughfares  we  wonder  whether  we  shall  ever 
gain  sufficient  courage  to  cross  them  on  foot,  so  full  are 


©  I'nderwood  &  I'nderwoofl 

Fig.  35.    The  Royal  Exchange  and  Bank   of  England,  London 


they  of  heavy  drays,  lumbering  motor  ''  trusses,"  innumerable 
carriages,  automobiles,  and  hosts  of  other  vehicles.  When 
we  make  the  attempt,  however,  we  find  it  much  easier  than 
it  looks.  All  the  teams  on  one  half  of  the  street  are  going 
in  one  direction.    In  the  middle  of  the  street  we  discover 


98  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  —  EUROPE 

that  there  is  a  raised  walk  where  we  can  take  refuge  before 
we  attempt  the  other  half,  where  the  vehicles  are  all  going 
in  the  other  direction. 

The  streets  are  lined  with  buildings,  representing  such  a 
variety  of  occupations  that  it  would  be  impossible  to  name 
them  all.  There  are  streets  bordered  with  banks,  and  streets 
with  newspaper  and  printing  offices ;  there  are  some  with 
busmess  houses,  and  some  with  clubs  and  hotels.  Many- 
streets  are  Imed  with  great  stores,  which  make  such  a  fine 
display  of  goods  that  it  is  a  temptation  to  linger  to  look 
into  the  wmdows. 

London  is  situated  farther  from  the  coal  and  iron  mines 
than  are  other  English  cities  and  is  therefore  more  handi- 
capped in  its  manufactures.  Still,  judging  from  the  large 
mills  and  factories  that  we  see  on  manj-  of  the  streets,  it 
carries  on  a  great  variety.  The  largest  breweries,  distil- 
leries, and  sugar  refineries  of  the  British  Isles  are  in 
London.  The  city  is  noted  for  the  dressing  of  sealskins 
and  other  fine  furs.  The  sealskins  are  brought  from  both 
Alaskan  and  Russian  waters,  and  in  the  great  establish- 
ments they  are  changed  from  the  hard  skin  to  the  soft, 
beautiful  fur  used  for  coats  and  muffs.  Machmery  of  all 
kinds  is  made  in  great  quantities.  Manufactures  on  a  large 
scale  —  of  watches,  jewelry,  brass,  books,  prints,  and  boots 
and  shoes  —  are  carried  on.  There  is  also  much  cabinetmak- 
ing,  coopering,  coach-building,  leather- working,  hat -making, 
shipbuilding,  rope-making,  and  mast-making. 

Before  the  Suez  Canal  was  opened  London  was  a  great 
distributing  center  for  oriental  goods,  and  it  is  to-day  the 
principal  world  market  for  tea.  Though  little  or  no  wine 
is  made  in  England,  London  is  the  greatest  market  in  the 


MANUFACTURING  ENGLAND  99 

world  for  that  product.  It  is  the  chief  money  center  of 
the  world,  and  business  in  many  countries  is  affected  by  the 
condition  of  finances  in  the  mammoth  city.  Money  from 
■  London  banks  supports  great  enterprises  in  all  parts  of  the 
world ;  it  helps  build  bridges  in  Africa,  develops  silver  mines 
in  Peru,  constructs  railroads  in  China,  and  makes  possible 
the  carrying  out  of  irrigation  projects  in  Australia.  The 
Bank  of  Enghmd,  an  immense  gray  stone  building,  is  the 
heart  of  the  whole  financial  world. 

You  have  learned  that  the  importance  of  a  city  depends 
to  a  great  extent  upon  its  situation.  Let  us  notice  the  loca- 
tion of  London  and  see  whether  it  has  aided  the  city  in  its 
growth.  It  is  on  a  small  but  iiavigable  river,  about  forty 
miles  from  its  mouth.  Therefore  it  has  free  passage  to  the 
ocean,  yet  is  so  far  inland  tliat  it  is  in  easy  communica- 
tion with  the  rest  of  England.  It  is  separated  by  only 
a  narrow  channel  of  water  from  continental  seaports,  tlie 
outlets  of  the  most  developed  and  densely  populated  coun- 
tries of  Europe  —  countries  which  need  the  manufactures 
of  England  and  which  send  her  in  return  many  of  their 
own  products. 

There  are  many  famous  buiklings  which  you  must  surely 
see  before  leaving  the  city.  The  great  Tower  of  London  is 
one  of  these.  During  the  centuries  since  it  was  erected  on 
the  bank  of  the  Thames  it  has  served  as  a  prison,  a  palace, 
and  a  fortress.  In  it  we  can  see  crowns  and  scepters  set 
with  wonderful  jewels  which  have  been  worn  by  English 
sovereigns,  and  robes  in  which  kings  and  queens  have  been 
crowned.  There  are  rooms  filled  with  figures  of  horses  and 
men  in  all  kinds  of  armor.  One  room  contains  the  instru- 
ments of  torture  used  in  those  awful  days  which  we  do  not 


100 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 


like  to  think  about.   There  are  dungeons  and  prisons,  and  so 
many  rooms  to  visit  and  so  many  things  to  examine  that  we 
could  spend  days  at  the  Tower  before  we  could  see  it  all. 
The  Houses  of  Parliament  are  among  the  most  beautiful  • 
buildings  of  London.  They  are  situated  on  the  Thames  River 


t     1         1 

A 

.iMM^A 

^4  , 

1- 

p.  . 

•Attn   "            -lijii) 

-  :.1J  l!  iil' 

1  1 

'  i      :  1  ■     :    : 

' !  n } ;  ,1 


©  Underwood  &  Underwood 

Fig.  36.    "The  Houses  of  Parliament  ake  among  the  most 
Beautiful  Buildings  of  London" 


and  extend  more  than  nine  hundred  feet  along  its  bank.  We 
wish  that  we  might  visit  them  when  the  House  of  Lords 
and  the  House  of  Commons  are  in  session,  and  listen  to 
some  of  the  mteresting  debates  and  eloquent  addresses 
which  are  often  given  by  famous  statesmen. 

One   of   the    buildings   in   London   which   perhaps   the 
people  love  better  than  any  other  is  Westminster  Abbey. 


MANUFACTURING  ENGLAND 


101 


In  it,  for  many  years,  their  rulers  have  been  crowned ;  and 
in  it  are  the  tombs  of  many  famous  soldiers,  statesmen, 
inventors,  authors,  and  poets.   We  find  there  monuments  to 


)  Keystone  View  Co. 

Fig.  37.    "The  Bridge  is  strongly  built  of  Stone  and  will 
doubtless  endure  for  centuries  " 


such  men  as  the  Duke  of  Wellington,  Sir  John  Franklin, 
William  Pitt,  David  Livingstone,  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  Alfred 
Tennyson,  Robert  Browning,  and  Charles  Dickens.  In  the 
poets'  corner  is  a  bust  of  our  dearly  loved  Longfellow. 


102  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 

There  are  several  bridges  across  the  Thames  River,  but 
the  one  called  London  Bridge  is  the  most  important  of 
them  all.  You  have  all  played  ''  London  Bridge "  and 
have  sung  the  old  refrain : 

London  Bridge  is  falling  down,  falling  down,  falling  down, 
London  Bridge  is  falling  down,  my  fair  lady ! 

There  is  little  danger,  however,  of  such  a  disaster  ever 
occurring,  as  the  bridge  is  strongly  built  of  stone  and  will 
doubtless  endure  for  centuries. 


TOPICS  FOR  STUDY 


1.  Density  of  population  in  European  countries  and  the  results. 

2.  Natural  advantages  of  England. 

3.  Description  of  Liveriwol. 

4.  The  cotton  industry. 

5.  Description  of  ^Manchester. 

6.  The  wool  industry. 

7.  Description  of  Bradford  and  Leeds. 

8.  The  iron  and  steel  industry. 

9.  Description  of  Sheffield  and  Birmingham. 

10.  Places  passed  in  our  trip  :  Stratford-on- Avon,  Warwick  Castle, 
Oxford,  and  Cambridge. 

11.  Description  of  London. 

II 

1.  Bound  England.  AVhat  separates  it  from  France?  from  Ger- 
many? from  Ireland?  from  Scotland? 

2.  Name  the  important  indentations  on  the  coast  of  England. 
Make  a  map  showing  the  chief  indentations  on  opposite  coasts,  the 
rivers  which  flow  into  them,  and  the  cities  at  their  mouths. 

3.  What  was  said  of  these  rivers  in  Chapter  II  ? 


MANUFACTURING  ENGLAND  103 

4.  Name  the  foreign  colonies  of  J^ngland.  Ship  a  cargo  from 
each  colony  to  England ;  tell  what  is  carried,  the  shipping  port,  and 
the  waters  sailed  on. 

5.  Write  a  list  of  the  causes  which  have  helped  England  to 
become  such  an  important  manufacturing  nation ;  an  important 
commei'cial  nation. 

6.  Tell  the  waters  on  which  a  vessel  would  sail  in  bi'inging  the 
following  cargoes  to  Liverpool — wheat  from  Duluth ;  cotton  from 
New  Orleans;  wool  from  Callao  and  from  Cape  Town;  wine  from 
Lisbon ;  olive  oil  from  Naples  ;  fruits  from  Marseille ;  cork  from  Bar- 
celona ;  sugar  from  the  Bahama  Islands. 

7.  What  does  the  Suez  Canal  connect?  What  does  it  separate? 
What  particular  interest  has  England  in  this  canal  ? 

8.  Do  you  know  any  cities  in  other  countries  noted  for  iron 
and  steel  manufactures  ?  Which  one  holds  first  rank  in  the  world 
in  this  industry? 

9.  Write  a  list  of  the  different  kinds  of  woolen  cloth  that  you 
have  ever  heard  of.   See  how  large  a  collection  of  samples  you  can  get. 

10.  Read,  if  possible,  the  chapters  on  Cotton,  The  Sheep  and  Wool 
Industry,  and  Iron  in  "  Industrial  Studies  —  United  States,"  Vol.  I. 

11.  Make  a  list  of  the  buildings  in  London  which  are  spoken 
of  in  this  chapter.  Tell  one  fact  about  each.  See  if  you  can  find  ])ic- 
tures  or  descriptions  of  them  or  of  any  other  important  buildings  in 
that  city. 

12.  Tell  why  each  of  the  men  spoken  of  on  page  101  is  famous. 

13.  Name  the  places  in  the  United  States  that  you  can  think  of 
that  are  named  for  places  in  England.  In  what  part  of  our  country 
are  most  of  these  situated?   Why? 

Ill 

Be  able  to  spell  and  pronounce  the  following  names.  Locate  each 
place  and  tell  what  was  said  of  it  in  this  and  in  any  previous  chajiter. 
Add  other  facts  if  possible. 

Alaska  British  Isles  Flanders 

Australia  Canada  France 

Bahama  Islands  Cape  Colony  Germany 

Belgium  China  Great  Britain 

British  Commonwealth  England  Holland 


104 

INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES - 

- EUROPE 

Italy 

Dublin 

St.  Louis 

Japan 

Duluth 

San  Francisco 

Lancashire 

Eastham 

Sheffield 

Palestine 

Edinburgh 

Stratford-on-Avon 

Pennine  Mountains 

Galveston 

Peru 

Ghent 

Aire  River 

Portugal 

Glasgow 

Clyde  River 

Russia 

Hull 

Don  River 

Spain 

Kansas  City 

Forth  River 

United  King( 

lorn 

Leeds 

Gulf  Stream 

Yorkshire 

Leicester 

Humber  River 

Leith 

Irwell  River 

Alexandria 

Liverpool 

Leeds     and     Liverpool 

Baltimore 

London 

Canal 

Birmingham 

Manchester 

Manchester  Ship  Canal 

Bombay 

Montreal 

Mersey  River 

Bradford 

Xewcastle 

Severn  River 

Bristol 

New  Oi-leans 

Sheaf  River 

Bruges 

New  York 

Suez  Canal 

Calais 

Nottingham 

Thames  River 

Cambridge 

Oxford 

Trent  River 

Derby 

Philadelphia 

CHAPTER  YII 

PORTUGAL  AND  ITS  CORK   FORESTS 

Our  next  visit  will  take  us  to  a  country  which,  though 
only  a  little  larger  than  the  state  of  ]\Iaine,  was  once  rich 
and  powerful,  and  famous  for  exploration  and  conquest. 
The  great  kingdom  of  Brazil  was  one  of  her  colonies,  and 
the  riches  of  the  East  poured  into  her  treasury.  To-day  she 
is  one  of  the  least  important  of  European  countries  and  is 
famous,  not  for  her  colonies,  for  she  has  lost  most  of  them  ; 
not  for  her  wealth,  for  her  treasury  is  low  ;  not  for  her 
conunerce,  for  in  this  many  European  nations  outrank  her ; 
but  for  two  products  known  and  used  in  many  countries 
—  cork  and  port  wine. 

We  will  enter  Portugal  through  its  capital,  Lisbon, 
which  some  one  has  said  is  "  the  kernel  around  which  the 
country  has  crystallized."  It  is  situated  about  twelve  miles 
from  the  mouth  of  the  TaQ-us  River,  which  divides  Portuefal 
into  two  nearly  equal  parts.  Our  first  glimpse  of  Lisbon 
gives  the  impression  of  great  beauty  as  it  rises  from  the 
water,  terrace  upon  terrace,  with  masses  of  white  buildings 
gleaming  in  the  sun.  As  we  enter  the  city  and  climb  the 
hills  much  of  the  beauty  disappears.  There  are  few  really 
beautiful  buildings.  Perhaps  the  people  feel,  because  of  the 
earthquakes  from  which  in  times  past  the  city  has  suffered 
greatly,  that  it  is  not  wise  to  put  their  money  into  expensive 
houses.   Many  of  the  streets  are  narrow,  crooked,  steep,  and 

105 


106 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 


dirty.  The  modern  part  of  the  city  lies  in  the  valley.  Here 
the  streets  are  broad,  straight,  and  well-paved.  Modem  con- 
veniences, such  as  electric  cars  and  electric  lights,  are  found 
side  by  side  with  bullock  carts  and  springless  ox  teams. 

What  queer  names  the  streets  have  !  Nine  out  of  every  ten 
of  them  are  named  for  some  saint.  There  are  also  such  names 

as  Rua  do  Ouro,  or 
Gold     Street ;     Rua 
da   Prata,   or    Silver 
Street ;  and  Chiado, 
or  Noisy  Street.   Let 
us  walk  up  the  Rua 
do  Ouro,  for  this  is 
a     popular     prome- 
nade. The  shop  win- 
dows are    gay    with 
line  lace,  silks,  and 
the   gold  and  silver 
filigree    jewelry   for 
which  Lisbon   is  fa- 
mous.   At  the  head 
of  the  street  is  the 
Pra9a    do    Commer- 
cio,   a   large  square, 
bounded  on  thi-ee   sides  by  public   buildings  and  on  the 
fourth  by  the  Tagus  River. 

After  exploring  other  parts  of  the  city  we  will  go  down 
to  the  wharves,  for  we  are  more  interested  in  what  the 
people  are  doing  than  in  their  houses,  parks,  and  gardens. 
See  that  long  line  of  brick  buildings  stretching  along  the 
river.    As  we  come  nearer,  the  smell  of  fish  and  of  hot  oil 


t   I  udtr«  i'.hI  .V  i   n.lerwood 

Fig.  38.   Many  of  the  Streets  in  Lisbon 
ARE  Narrow 


» 


PORTUGAL  AND  ITS  CORK  FORESTS  107 

tells  us  that  they  are  sardine  factories.  ]\Iany  of  the  people 
of  Portugal  who  live  near  the  coast  are  engaged  in  sarduie 
fishing,  and  great  quantities  are  packed  and  exported  each 
year.  If  all  the  people  in  the  United  States  were  lined 
up  in  a  long  row,  we  could  give  every  other  one  a  can 
of  sardines,  caught  and  canned  by  Portuguese  fishermen. 

Fish,  either  fresh,  salted,  or  dried,  is  a  common  food  of 
the  poor  and  is  eaten  by  all  classes  on  the  many  fast  days 
which  occur  during  the  year.  Every  da}*  there  is  consumed 
in  Lisbon  an  average  of  half  a  pound  each  for  every  person 
in  the  city. 

The  fish  girls,  or  ovarinas,  as  they  are  called,  are  one  of 
the  characteristic  sights  of  Lisbon.  Bareheaded  except  for 
the  huge  baskets  of  fish,  and  barefooted,  two  thousand  of 
them,  of  all  ages  and  degrees  of  beauty,  travel  many  miles 
each  day  through  the  streets  of  the  city  crying  their  wares 
in  tones  no  more  musical  than  the  creak  of  the  oxcarts. 

The  river  and  harbor  seem  full  of  vessels  of  all  kinds  and 
sizes.  At  the  dock  on  our  left  is  a  small,  dirty-looking 
steamer  which  plies  up  and  down  the  Tagus,  stopping  at 
the  small  towns  along  the  shore.  At  another  pier  is  a  large 
vessel  with  the  flag  of  Brazil  flying  from  her  mast.  Portu- 
gal carries  on  more  trade  in  wine,  salt,  cheap  cotton  goods, 
and  other  products  with  this  old  colony  of  hers  than  with 
any  other  country  except  Great  Britain. 

That  vessel  flying  the  Union  Jack  is  from  England.  Lis- 
bon and  Oporto,  the  chief  ports  of  Portugal,  are  situated 
on  the  Atlantic  Ocean  near  where  English  vessels  must  pass 
in  their  voyage  to  the  Mediterranean  Sea  and  Asia,  and  to 
West  and  South  Africa.  So  it  is  natural  that  much  trade 
between  the  two  countries  should  spring  up.    As  Portugal 


108  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 

has  few  factories,  many  manufactured  goods,  such  as  cotton 
and  woolen  cloth,  machmery  and  tools,  as  well  as  coal,  oil, 
and  other  goods,  are  brought  by  these  English  ships.  Dried 
herring,  cod,  and  other  varieties  of  fish  are  also  brought  from 
northern  cities,  of  which  you  will  read  in  another  chapter. 

Vessels  from  other  European  countries — France,  Holland, 
Denmark,  Italy,  and  Sweden  —  may  be  seen  in  the  harbor, 
and  perhaps  one  from  the  United  States.  Our  trade  with 
Portugal  is  not  very  important.  We  send  her  a  few  million 
dollars'  worth  of  cotton,  corn,  petroleum,  tobacco,  wheat,  and 
staves,  and  receive  in  return  comparatively  little  except  cork. 

We  will  take  a  train  at  Lisbon  for  southern  Portugal, 
for  it  is  in  that  part  of  the  country  that  the  forests,  which 
produce  more  than  one  half  of  all  the  cork  used  in  the 
world,  are  chiefly  found. 

The  country  through  which  we  pass  on  our  journey  is 
not  very  beautiful.  In  some  places  there  are  naked  plains, 
shallow  rivers,  and  broad  marshes,  stretching  as  far  as  we 
can  see.  The  northern  part  of  the  country  has  many  rugged 
mountains,  deep,  fertile  valleys,  and  clear  streams,  but  the 
landscape  south  of  the  Tagus  River  is  for  the  most  part  flat 
and  uninteresting.  The  farms  here  are  not  so  attractive  nor 
so  well  kept  as  in  the  northern  part  of  Portugal.  This  is 
owing  partly  to  the  nature  of  the  country,  and  partly  to  the 
fact  that  many  of  the  peasants  are  the  tenants  of  larger  land- 
owners and  do  not  own  their  little  farms  as  do  the  people  in 
the  north.  Consequently  they  seldom  have  the  same  pride 
and  ambition  as  their  more  fortunate  northern  brothers. 

There  is  a  thrifty  looking  place,  however,  in  the  fields  off 
to  the  right.  Let  us  delay  our  trip  to  the  forests  for  a  little 
in  order  that  we  may  see  how  the  Portuguese  peasant  really 


PORTUGAL  AXD  ITS  CORK  FORESTS 


109 


lives.  The  low,  square,  one-story  house  is  built  of  stone  and 
is  whitewashed  without  and  within.  The  roof  has  broad 
overhanging  eaves,  gay  underneath  with  bright  vermilion 
paint.  As  we  enter  the  door  we  are  greeted  graciously  by 
a  dark -haired  peasant,  who,  with  a  graceful  bow,  tells  us 
that  his  time,  his  house,  his  family,  and  all  his  possessions 


Fig,  39,    Stripping  the  Cobs  with  Threshing  Flails  in  Portcgal 
From  "  World's  Commercial  Products" 


are  ours.  This  is  the  hospitable  way  of  the  Portuguese, 
who,  however,  would  be  very  much  surprised  if  we  were  to 
accept  their  generous  offers.  Travelers,  not  understanding 
the  custom,  have  sometimes  been  placed  in  embarrassmg 
positions  by  accepting  in  good  faith  some  admired  article 
which  the  kindly  host,  though  it  was  his  most  valued 
possession,   urged  upon  them. 


110  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES —  EUROPE 

The  house  consists  of  one  central  room  with  the  smaller 
bedrooms  opening  out  of  it.  Over  the  small  charcoal  fire 
hangs  a  kettle  containing  a  savory  soup  made  of  beans, 
cabbage,  rice,  and  gourds.  Sometimes  beef  or  bacon  takes 
the  place  of  one  of  the  vegetables  or  is  added  to  them. 
Various  kinds  of  soup,  dried  codfish  or  sardines,  olives  and 
olive  oil,  and  dark  bread  made  of  rye,  or  maize,  or  both, 
supply  the  needs  of  the  Portuguese  peasants. 

The  fuel  of  the  poorer  classes  consists  of  charcoal  or  of 
small  branches  and  sticks  of  wood,  which  are  sold  at  very 
low  prices.  Scattered  through  the  mountain  forests  are 
charcoal  burners,  who  look  like  bandits  and  who  live 
miserable,  lonely  lives,  preparing  this  cheapest  of  all  fuels 
for  the  peasants. 

The  forests  yield  other  harvests,  for  pine  cones  are  gath- 
ered for  the  fire,  and  pine  needles  for  beddmg  the  cattle. 
The  forest  products  are  brought  down  from  the  mountains 
on  the  backs  of  mules,  while  the  dark  muleteer  in  his  dusty 
cape  and  wide-brimmed  hat  walks  beside  the  mule  down  the 
narrow  path.  Portugal  is  famous  for  its  fine  mules,  which, 
with  bullocks  and  oxen,  are  used  much  more  than  horses. 
The  farmer's  oxen  can  be  seen  in  the  cattle  shed  near  at 
hand  —  great,  shaggy  fellows  with  widespreading  horns 
live  or  six  feet  from  tip  to  tip.  These  make  them  look  very 
fierce,  though  the  owner  tells  us  that  they  are  really  quite 
gentle  and  would  not  harm  us. 

We  admire  the  yoke  which  the  farmer  has  skillfully  carved 
for  the  oxen.  Centuries  ago  the  old  Romans  tilled  the  soil 
with  just  such  oxen,  wearing  a  similarh'  shaped  yoke,  har- 
nessed to  a  plow  like  the  ones  used  by  the  peasants  to-day, 
made  of  a  ci'ooked  branch  of  a  tree  with  a  small  iron  share 


PORTUGAL  AND  ITS  CORK  FORESTS 


111' 


which  turns  up  but  a  few  inches  of  soil.  Things  move 
slowly  in  some  of  the  countries  across  the  water.  Although 
one  might  see  in  Portugal  a  few  modern  plows  and  some 
other  up-to-date  machinery,  agriculture  for  the  most  part  is 
carried  on  in  the  same  fashion  as  it  has  been  for  hundreds 
of  years.  The  men  and 
women  out  there  in  the 
fields  beyond  the  cattle 
sheds  are  bending  low 
to  the  ground  and  cut- 
ting the  grass,  a  few 
blades  at  a  time,  with 
reaping  hooks,  while  a 
man  with  a  pile  of  fra- 
grant hay  on  his  head 
is  carrying  it  across  the 
fields  to  the  barn. 

The  farmer's  life  is  a 
busy  one,  with  the  care 
of  his  fields,  his  crops, 
and  his  cattle.    In  Au- 

,  .  ©  Underwoo.l  ^  rn.lirwood 

gust    he    must   harvest     -c      <n    t?      ^  n. 

o  iiG.  40.    liiLr.ocKS  AND  Oxen  are  used 

his  grain  and  vegetables,  much  more  than  Horses 

his  gourds  and  grapes  in 

September,  his  corn  in  October,  and  his  olives  in  December. 
He  raises  flax  for  his  linen,  and  sheep  for  his  wool.  His 
wife  and  daughters  spin  the  fiber  into  yarn,  and  the  village 
weaver  weaves  the  yarn  into  strong,  durable  cloth.  His 
farm  yields  him  most  of  his  food  —  bread,  butter,  cheese, 
meat,  wine,  vegetables,  and  olives.  The  village  carpenter 
makes  his  cart,  and  the  blacksmith  liis  plow  and  simple 


112  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 

tools.  He  plows  and  reaps  iii  the  same  way  as  his  ances- 
tors. Neither  he  nor  his  family,  perhaps,  ever  see  books  or 
papers,  or  know  how  to  read  and  write.  The  great  world  is 
a  dream  to  him.  Yet  his  house  is  warm  and  comfortable, 
his  cattle  well  fed,  his  storehouse  supplied  for  the  winter 
with  materials  for  food  and  clothing,  and  he  lives  contented 
and  happy  the  whole  year  through,  for,  as  the  old  saying 
goes,  "  though  winter  lies  outside,  he  has  summer  in  the 
barn,  autumn  in  the  cellar,  and  spring  in  the  heart.'* 

Leaving  the  farm  we  continue  our  journey  southward 
until  the  dim  stretches  of  the  cork  forests  come  into  view. 
Soon  we  are  in  the  midst  of  them.  Interspersed  with  dark 
firs  and  great  oaks  are  hundreds  and  thousands  of  wide- 
spreading,  evergreen  trees  from  twenty  to  sixty  feet  high, 
and  with  rough  trunks  from  one  to  four  feet  in  diameter, 
covered  with  thick,  gray  bark.  If  our  visit  were  later  in 
the  fall,  we  should  find  the  ground  strewn  with  acorns, 
and  droves  of  pigs  contentedly  chewing  the  bitter  fruit, 
while  the  barefooted  Portuguese  boys  who  tend  them  have 
a  gay  time  among  the  gnarled  old  trees.  The  acorns  are 
considered  very  valuable  as  a  food  for  swine,  as  they  are 
said  to  give  to  the  ham  a  flavor  superior  to  that  produced 
by  any  other  food. 

You  notice  in  the  picture  that  the  trees  look  like  old 
veterans  that  have  braved  the  winter  storms  and  the  sum- 
mer heat  for  years.  Many  of  them  are  nearly  one  hundred 
years  old ;  thev  had  lived  nearly  twenty  years  before  they 
yielded  their  first  crop  of  bark,  which  was  so  rough  and 
coarse  as  to  be  of  very  little  use.  The  second  stripping, 
eight  or  ten  years  later,  was  of  better  quality  but  not  so 
good  as  that  of  still   later  harvests.    When   about  forty 


PORTUGAL  AND  ITS  CORK  FORESTS 


113 


years  old  the  trees  3'ield  their  best  bark,  and  coutliiue  to  do 
so  every  ten  years  until  they  are  about  one  hundred  years 
old,  and  sometimes  even  longer. 

It  is  mteresting  to  watch  the  cork  strippers  at  work  and 
to  see  how  the  bark  is  removed.  With  a  sharp  knife  or 
hatchet  the  peasant  makes  a  cut  around  the  trunk  near  the 


©  Arinstrong  Cork  Co.,  Pittsburgh 

Fig.  41.  "It  is  Interesting  to  watch  the  Cork  Strippers  at  Work" 

base  of  a  fine  old  tree,  and  another  just  below  the  point 
where  the  branches  put  out.  He  nuist  make  these  cuts 
deep  enough  to  go  through  the  outer  coating  of  bark,  but 
not  deep  enough  to  touch  the  inner  layer.  When  the  outer 
coat  is  stripped  off,  the  inner  one,  if  not  injured,  will  grow 
thicker  and  will  be  in  turn  removed,  when  the  same  process 
will  be  repeated.     If  the  inner  bark  is  injured,  no  more 


114 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 


will  form,  and  the  usefulness  of  the  tree  is  destroyed.  So 
the  workmen  are  very  careful  that  their  knives  go  just 
deep  enough  and  no  deeper.  The  two  crossway  incisions 
are  then  connected  by  lengthwise  cuts  which  follow,  when 


©  Armstrong  Cork  Co.,  Pittsburgh 

Fig.  42.    The  First  Crop  of  Bark  (at  the  Left)  is  so  Rough  and 

Coarse  as  to  be  of  Little   Use.    The   Second  Stripping   (at  the 

Right)  is  of  Better  Quality 

possible,  the  deepest  cracks  in  the  bark.  Then  by  inserting 
the  wedge-shaped  end  of  his  hatchet  handle,  the  workman 
pries  off  the  sheets  of  bark.  Tlie  larger  branches  of  the 
trees,  as  well  as  the  main  trunk,  are  stripped  of  their  gray 
coats,  the  branches  yielding  a  thinner  layer,  but  one  of  fine 
quality. 


PORTUGAL  AND  ITS  CORK  FORESTS 


115 


Not  only  in  Portu^-al,  but  in  Spain,  France,  Ital}^  and 
across  the  blue  Mediterranean  in  Tunis  and  Algeria,  we 
should  find,  could  we  visit  those  countries  during  the  sum- 
mer, thousands  of  peasants  in  the  cork  forests  stripping  the 
bark  from  the  trees.  In  Spain  alone,  whose  output  of  cork 
ranks  next  to  that  of  Portugal,  nearly  ten  thousand  men  are 


I  Armstrong  Cork  Co.,  Pitt6burj;li 

Fig.  43.   The  Men  leave  the  Cork  in  Piles  to  i>ry,  after 

WHICH    they  weigh    IT 


engaged  in  this  work.  Here  in  Portugal,  where  the  forests 
cover  an  area  more  than  one  fourth  the  size  of  Massa- 
chusetts, hundreds  of  men  find  work  in  their  deep  shade. 

The  stripping  from  the  trees  is  only  the  first  of  several 
processes  through  which  the  cork  must  be  put  before  it  is 
ready  for  use.  The  men  leave  it  in  piles  for  a  few  days  to 
dry,  after  which  they  weigh  it  and  carry  it  in  ox  teams 
or  on  the  backs  of  mules  to  the  boiling  stations,  which 


116 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 


sometimes  are  long  distances  away.  Here,  after  seasoning 
ill  the  open  air  for  some  weeks,  it  is  put  into  vats  and 
boiled.  This  softens  the  outer  coating  of  woody  matter, 
which  makes  up  nearly  one  fifth  of  the  weight  of  the  bark, 
so  that  it  can  be  easily  scraped  off. 

The  bark  is  then  sorted  according  to  quality  and  again 
loaded  on  ox  or  bullock  teams,  or  piled  so  high  on  the 

backs  of  mules  that,  as 
they  walk  away,  the 
loads  look  like  moving 
woodpiles.  Arrivmg 
at  the  seaport  the 
bark  is  again  carefully 
sorted  and  done  up 
in  large  bales  bound 
with  steel  or  with  wire 
hoops  and  loaded  on 
vessels  bound  for  dif- 
ferent ports  in  Eng- 
land, Germany,  Japan, 
the  United  States,  and 
other  countries.  You 
may  be  surprised  to  learn  that  we  import  annually  several 
million  dollars'  worth  of  cork  bark  and  cork  products. 
Some  of  the  bark  comes  from  Spain,  butlier  contribution 
is  much  smaller  than  that  sent  by  little  Portugal. 

In  former  days  all  corks  were  made  by  hand,  and  in  every 
peasant's  house  in  the  cork  district  we  could  have  found 
whole  families  engaged  in  slicing  the  bark  into  strips,  then 
cutting  the  strips  into  blocks,  and  finally  shaping  the  cork 
from  the  block.    This  house  industry  is  still  carried  on  to 


(£.'  Ariiittruiij;  Cork  Co..  I'llibburgli 

Fig.  44.  "  In  Former  Days  All  Corks 

"WERE  MADE  BY  HaND  " 


PORTUGAL  AND  ITS  CORK  FORESTS 


li: 


some  extent,  but  most  corks  are  now  made  by  machinery. 
A  skillful  workman  with  his  sharp  knife  can  make  perhaps 
two  thousand  a  day.  The  machines  which  are  used  can 
each  do  the  work  of  twenty  or  more  men,  and  are  so  simple 
that  skilled  labor  is  not  required  to  operate  them.  Out  of 
nearly  one  hundred  thirty  million  pounds  of  cork  produced 
in  Portugal,  only  about  one  third  is  manufactured  there. 


10  Armstrong  Cork  Co.,  I'lttsburgh 

Fig.  45.  When  the  Bark  arrives  at  the  Factory   it  is  placed 
IN  Warehouses  until  needed 

We  buy  from  Spain  nearly  a  million  and  a  lialf  dollars' 
worth  of  manufactured  corks,  but  most  of  our  imports 
from  Portugal  come  m  the  large  sheets  of  cork  bark. 

When  this  arrives  at  the  factory  it  is  placed  in  ware- 
houses until  needed.  In  Portugal  the  bark  was  sorted  into 
twenty-five  or  thirty  grades.  In  the  sortmg  room  of  a 
great  factory,  skilled  workmen  divide  the  cork  into  one 
hundred  fifty  different  grades,  depending  on  the  quality 
and  thickness  and  on  the  uses  to  which  it  is  to  be  put. 


118 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 


It  is  then  softened  by  steaming,  after  which  the  slabs 
are  sliced  into  strips  from  which  machines  bore  out  stop- 
pers at  a  daily  rate  of  thirty  thousand  to  fifty  thousand  an 
operative.  These  stoppers  are  straight  sided.  If  tapering 
ones  are  desired  they  are  put  tlu-ough  a  machine  which 


©  Armstroug  Cork  Co.,  Pittsburgh 

Fig.  46.   In  Pittsburgh,  in  the  Largest  Cork  Manufactory  in  the 
World,  Five  Million  Corks  are  made  Each  Day 

holds  them  against  the  edge  of  a  circular  knife  which  re- 
volves so  rapidly  that  it  appears  to  be  standing  still.  The 
corks  are  then  washed  and  dried  and  finally  reach  the  sort- 
ing room.  In  a  large  manufactory  in  Pittsburgh,  the  larg- 
est one  in  the  world,  five  million  corks  of  all  shapes,  sizes, 
and  qualities  are  made  each  day  and  sorted  into  more  than 
twenty  grades.    An  expert  sorter  can  handle  from  fifteen 


PORTUGAL  AND  ITS  CORK  FORESTS 


119 


thousand  to  fifty  thousand  daily,  the  number  dependmg  on 
the  size  and  quality. 

Cork  is  used  not  only  for  stoppers,  but  in  many  other 
ways.  It  is  used  for  floats  and  fishing  nets,  for  buoys,  and 
for  life  preservers.  The  optician  uses  small  cork  strips  on 
the  nose  pieces  of  eyeglasses  ;  the  plasterer  uses  cork  floats  ; 
the  glass  manufacturer  polishes  his  wares  with  cork  wheels. 
The  finest  pieces  of  bark  are  made  into  cork  paper,  so  thin 


I  Aniiatroug  Cork  Co.,  Pittsburgh 

Fig.  47.    "The  Slabs  are  sliced  into  Strips  from  which 
Machines  bore  out  Stoppers" 


that  five  hundred  sheets  measure  but  one  inch  in  thickness. 
Tliis  velvety  material  is  used  in  making  cigarette  tips. 
When  you  push  the  cork  into  a  bottle,  buy  a  pair  of  inner 
soles,  use  a  cork  penholder  at  school,  or  grasp  the  handles 
of  your  bicycle,  just  remember  that  some  peasant  in  the 
green  forests  of  Spain  or  Portugal  or  Algeria  labored  to 
procure  the  material  for  you. 


120  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES— EUROPE 

In  cutting  the  cork  the  dust  and  small  shavings  accumu- 
late in  large  amounts.  jNIore  than  half  of  the  cork  bark 
which  started  out  on  its  journey  tln-ough  the  factory  may 
be  found  later  in  the  scrap  heaps.  None  of  this  is  wasted  ;  it  is 
carefully  collected  and  the  small  pieces  are  ground.  Perhaps 
you  have  seen  in  some  grocery  or  fruit  store  the  Malaga 
grapes  from  Spain  packed  in  ground  cork.  That  very  dura- 
ble floor  covering,  linoleum,  is  made  from  a  preparation  of 
cork  powder  and  linseed  oil  spread  on  strong  cloth.  Table 
mats  to  be  placed  under  hot  dishes,  pincushions,  fishline 
floats,  and  many  other  articles  are  made  from  cork  Avaste. 
You  may  sleep  on  a  mattress  or  use  in  your  boat  or  canoe 
cushions  stuffed  with  cork  shavings.  As  cork  is  a  non- 
conductor of  heat  it  is  used  for  filling  between  the  walls 
of  ice  boxes,  water  coolers,  cold-storage  rooms,  and  about 
the  sides  of  freezing  tanks  m  ice  factories. 

In  foreign  countries  cork  is  put  to  many  strange  uses. 
Spanish  houses  sometimes  have  their  walls  lined  with  it  to 
make  them  warm  and  dry.  Cooking  utensils,  pails,  plates, 
tubs,  cups,  furniture,  boats,  and  beehives  are  also  made 
from  it.  In  Turkey  this  useful  bark  is  made  into  huts  for 
the  cork  cutters  while  alive  and  coffins  for  them  when  they 
are  dead.    One  writer  has  said  : 

There  are  three  trees  in  the  world  which  yield  that  which  is  of 
more  real  value  to  man  than  all  the  jewels  and  precious  stones  ever 
dug  from  the  earth  :  a  South  American  tree  yields  the  liquid  which 
is  caoutchouc  or  india  rubber,  the  Peruvian  cinchona  gives  us  qui- 
nine, and  a  species  of  live  oak  supplies  the  world  with  cork. 


PORTUGAL  AND  ITS  CORK  FORESTS  121 

TOPICS  FOR  STUDY 

I 

1.  Former  power  of  Portugal. 

2.  Description  of  the  Tagus  River. 

3.  Descrijation  of  Li.sbon. 

4.  Commerce  of  Portugal. 

5.  Southern  Portugal. 

6.  The  cork  fore.sts. 

7.  Obtaining  cork. 

8.  Manufacturing  cork. 

9.  Cork  areas  and  production. 
10.  U.ses  of  cork. 

II 

1.  Find  the  area  of  Portugal.  Compare  it  with  that  of  England; 
of  some  state  in  the  United  States. 

2.  Ship  a  vessel  from  Portugal  to  Brazil.  Xame  the  waters  sailed 
on,  the  cargo  carried  each  way,  and  the  shipping  and  receiving  ports. 

3.  Can  you. find  a  description  of  the  great  earthquake  at  Lisbon? 

4.  What  colonies  of  England  does  she  reach  through  the  Medi- 
terranean and  Red  Sea  route  ?    Name  the  waters  sailed  on. 

5.  With  what  colonies  in  West  and  South  Africa  does  England 
trade?  What  cargoes  are  taken  each  way?  How  long  a  voyage  do 
you  think  it  is  from  England  to  South  Africa?  How  many  miles 
is  it? 

6.  Sketch  a  map  of  Eui-ope.  Show  routes  from  Lisbon  to  some 
port  in  Germany,  France,  Denmark,  Italy,  Sweden,  and  England. 
Write  the  name  of  each  port. 

7.  Imagine  yourself  a  Portuguese  boy  or  girl  and  write  a  .story 
of  your  life. 

8.  The  Portuguese  use  charcoal  for  fuel.    How  is  it  prepared  ? 

9.  Sketch  a  map  of  Portugal.  Show  in  it  the  area  where  cork 
is  obtained.    Show  also  all  places  mentioned  in  this  chapter. 

10.  Write  a  list  of  the  processes  in  the  numufacture  of  cork;  of 
the  uses  of  cork. 

11.  Add  to  your  school  collection  anything  you  can  find  which  is 
made  of  cork. 

12.  AVhat  is  linseed  oil?  What  is  it  made  from  ?  AVhat  are  its  uses ? 


122 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  —  EUROPE 


111 

Be  able  to  spell  and  pronounce  the  following  names.  Locate  each 
place  and  tell  what  was  said  of  it  in  this  and  in  any  previous  chapter. 
Add  other  facts  if  possible. 


Algeria 

Brazil 

Denmark 

England 

France 

Germany 

Great  Britain 

Italy 


Japan 
Elaine 

^lassachusetts 

Peru 

Spain 

Sweden 

Tunis 

Turkey 


United  States 

Lisbon 
Oporto 
Pittsburgh 

Mediterranean  Sea 
Tagus  River 


CHAPTER  VIII 
A  TRIP  THROUGH  RUSSIA 

Our  next  trip  will  take  us  from  little  Portugal  to  great 
Russia,  many  times  larger.  In  this,  the  largest  country  of 
Europe,  we  shall  also  visit  great  forests,  but  they  are  of  a 
very  different  kind  from  those  we  saw  in  Portugal.  We 
shall  feel  more  at  home  in  the  deep  woods  of  Russia,  for 
they  are  made  up  of  trees  which  are  common  in  the  United 
States  —  birch,  oak,  pine,  fir,  and  others. 

We  can  reach  Russia  by  sailing  from  Lisbon  either  to 
the  north  or  to  the  south.  We  will  choose  the  northern 
route,  as  this  will  bring  us  much  nearer  to  the  forest  region 
which  we  wish  to  visit.  This  takes  us  past  the  coast  of 
France,  where  the  sardine  fishermen  are  gathering  their 
ocean  harvest,  and  through  the  English  Channel  and  the 
Strait  of  Dover,  where  the  white  chalk  cliffs  of  England 
gleam  in  the  sunshine. 

Instead  of  going  around  the  coast  of  Denmark,  through 
the  Skagerrack  and  Kattegat  with  their  treacherous  shal- 
lows and  difficult  passages,  we  will  choose  a  shorter  route 
and  a  much  safer  one  from  the  North  to  the  Baltic  Sea 
by  means  of  the  Kiel  Canal,  which  was  built  by  Germany 
to  connect  these  waters. 

Tliere  are  several  ports  on  the  Baltic  Sea  at  which 
we  might  stop  and  begin  our  journey  into  Russia.  Riga, 
the  capital  and  chief  city  of  Latvia  and  a  great  timber 

123 


124  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES —  EUROPE 

and  flax  port,  is  one  of  these.  It  is  situated  about  seven 
miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  Diina  River,  a  deep,  navigable 
stream  which  leads  into  the  heart  of  Russia. 

We  pass  Reval  in  Estlionia,  where  in  ordinary  years  we 
might  see  vessels  loaded  with  cotton  from  the  United 
States.  Most  of  that  shipped  from  our  Southern  states 
enters  Russia  through  the  city  of  Reval,  as  this  port  is 
open  the  year  round,  while  Riga,  being  situated  on  the 
Dlina  River,  is  often  frozen  for  two  or  three  months. 

We  desire,  however,  to  make  our  entrance  into  the 
country  through  "  the  eye,"  which  Peter  the  Great  made 
m  order  that  he  might,  as  he  said,  "  look  out  on  the  rest 
of  Europe."  Consequently  we  steam  past  other  ports  and 
sail  through  the  Gulf  of  Finland  to  Petrograd. 

The  eye  of  Russia  is,  of  course,  very  precious  and  must 
be  well  protected.  This  protection  is  given  by  the  fortress 
of  Kronstadt,  wdiich  is  built  on  an  island  in  the  narrowest 
part  of  the  gulf,  about  twenty-five  miles  west  of  Petrograd. 
Except  for  the  fact  that  it  is  frozen  over  for  some  months 
of  the  year,  the  harbor  of  Kronstadt  is  a  fine  one.  The 
portion  given  over  to  merchant  vessels  is  large  enough  to 
hold  several  hundred  of  them  at  the  same  time.  The  part 
devoted  to  the  use  of  war  vessels  only  is  protected  by 
forts  built  on  two  small  islands. 

Most  of  the  trade  of  Petrograd  was  formerly  carried  on 
through  Kronstadt,  as  the  Neva  River  is  too  shallow  to 
carry  large  vessels  to  the  capital.  Now,  however,  a  canal 
large  enough  for  ocean  steamers  has  been  built  between  tlie 
two  cities,  and  but  little  commerce  is  carried  on  at  Kronstadt. 

In  the  seventeenth  century  the  land  where  Petrograd 
now  stands  was    a    low  marsh    peopled    only  by    a    few 


A  TRIP  THROUGH  RUSSIA  125 

miserable  fishermen  living  in  rude  huts.  Peter  the  Great, 
the  most  famous  of  all  Russian  rulers,  was  wise  enough  to 
know  that  before  Russia  could  become  the  great  nation 
that  he  thought  she  was  destined  to  be,  she  must  have 
knowledge  of  and  communication  with  other  countries. 
The  waters  of  the  Baltic  Sea,  washing  the  shores  of  other 
nations,  furnished  a  highway  to  the  rest  of  Europe.  There- 
fore Peter  decreed  that  a  seaport  should  be  built  upon  its 
borders.  "  There  is  no  lumber,"  said  his  nobles.  "  Bring 
it  from  the  forests ! "  replied  Peter.  "  There  is  no  rock  or 
building  stone,"  objected  the  courtiers.  "  No  vessel  shall 
land  here  unless  it  brings  some !  "  retorted  Peter.  "  But  it 
is  only  a  marsh,  there  is  no  solid  land,"  pleaded  his  minis- 
ters. "  Make  some ! "  thundered  Peter.  And  the  nobles 
and  courtiers  and  ministers  dared  say  no  more. 

Piles  were  driven,  foundations  laid,  and  houses  built. 
Workmen  died  by  the  hundreds  and  by  the  thousands,  l)nt 
more  were  brought  from  other  parts  of  tlie  country,  and  the 
work  went  on.  I'here  were  no  masons  to  build  the  liouses. 
An  order  from  Peter,  and  all  stonework  and  brickwork  over 
the  entire  kingdom  stopped.  Masons  everywhere  could 
find  no  work  :  and  so  they  Hocked  to  Petrograd,  and  the 
buildings  grew  like  magic.  In  one  year  thirty  thousaiid 
houses  were  built  in  the  city,  and  one  hundred  thousand 
workmen  died. 

Once  more  the  nobles  objected,  "  There  are  no  people 
for  your  city."  ''  I  will  bring  them  !  "  declared  Peter.  And 
he  did.  Whole  families,  whole  towns,  were  ordered  to  take 
L  their  goods  and  live  in  the  emperor's  new  capital.  Peter 
himself  defied  the  unhealthy  climate  and  built  his  palace 
there.    All  court  functions  and  festivities  were  held  there, 


126 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 


and  the  nobles  and  officers  of  the  court  were  obliged,  there- 
fore, to  reside  in  the  city.  Thus  Petrograd  grew  and  flour- 
ished. To-day  it  is  the  second  largest  city  of  Russia ;  but 
it  is  no  longer  the  capital,  for  during  the  World  War  the 
seat  of  government  was  changed  to  Moscow. 

The  houses  are  built  chiefly  of  brick  or  rubble,  often 
covered  with  stucco  and  showily  decorated,  and  the  streets 

are  broad  and  straight. 
The  finest  of  all  is  the 
Nevsky  Prospekt.  It  is 
broad,  straight,  and  well 
paved.  The  electric  cars 
occupy  the  middle  of  it, 
and  on  either  side  there 
are  spaces  for  private  car- 
riages, while  beyond  these 
limits  public  carriages  and 
heavy  teams  may  drive. 
A  walk  down  the 
Nevsky  Prospek't  fur- 
nishes plenty  of  entertain- 
ment. Crowds  of  people 
of  so  many  different 
nationalities  tln-ong  the 
sidewalks  that  a  secret  whispered  in  any  language  would 
hardly  be  safe.  On  either  side  of  the  street  are  shops  with 
fascinating  windows.  Here  is  one  showing  beautiful  jewelry 
and  glittering  gems  of  all  colors  and  sizes.  Beyond  the 
Ural  Mountains  in  Siberia  are  regions  which  are  very  rich 
in  precious  stones,  and  many  of  those  displayed  here  have 
come  from  places  thousands  of  miles  away. 


©  Underwood  i  Underwood 

Fig.  48.    ''A  Walk  down  the  Nevsky 

PliOSriiKT     FURNISHES     PlENTY    OF    EN- 
TERTAINMENT " 


A  TRIP  THROUGH  RUSSIA  127 

In  the  next  store  there  is  a  niagnilicent  display  of  furs 
—  rich,  brown  sables  worth  almost  their  weight  in  gold  ; 
black  fox,  soft  and  fine  as  feathers ;  white,  curly,  Tibetan 
goat ;  velvety  otter  ;  heavy  bearskins,  wolfskins,  and  warm, 
serviceable  reindeer  skins.  The  houses  in  Petrograd  are 
kept  very  warm,  and  people  do  not  wear  heavy  clothing 
indoors.  When  they  go  out,  however,  into  the  biting  cold, 
thick  clothing  and  warm  furs  are  a  necessity  and  are 
sometimes  worn  as  late  as  May. 

There  are  many  market  gardens  around  Petrograd  which 
supply  the  city  with  delicious  summer  vegetables  and  fruits, 
strawberries,  raspberries,  plums,  gooseberries,  and  currants. 
Mushrooms  are  eaten  in  great  quantities  in  Russia,  and  a 
special  dainty  of  the  peasants  is  a  fresh  cucumber  covered 
with  honey.  Country  housewives  have  many  ways  of  pre- 
serving fruits  and  vegetables.  Were  it  not  for  this,  their 
food  during  the  long  winter  would  be  very  monotonous. 

It  would  seem  queer  to  us  to  buy  milk  in  a  solid  block. 
Not  so  to  the  children  of  Petrograd,  for  during  the  winter 
many  of  the  provisions,  including  milk,  are  kept  frozen. 
The  fish  market,  too,  with  its  piles  of  frozen  fish,  is  inter- 
esting, and  we  wish  we  might  hear  some  of  the  thrilling 
stories  of  storms  and  suffering  which  that  weather-beaten 
fisherman  from  Archangel,  at  yonder  stall,  might  tell  us. 

Though  the  cold  is  intense,  it  is  in  the  winter  that  you 
would  most  enjoy  Petrograd.  The  houses  have  walls  two 
or  three  feet  thick,  and  double  windows  which  are  seldom 
opened. 

A  huge  stove  made  of  clay  or  brick  and  reaching  nearly 
to  the  ceiling  is  commonly  used.  It  is  generally  built  into 
the  wall  so  that  it  projects  into  the  rooms  on  either  side  and 


128 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  —  EUROPE 


warms  both  of  them.  A  great  fire  is  built,  and  when  the 
wood  has  burned  down  to  a  pile  of  coals,  the  drafts  are  shut, 
and  the  walls  of  the  stove  become  hot  enough  to  keep  the 
high-ceiled  rooms  warm  for  twenty-four  hours  or  longer. 

You  would  not  care  to  spend  your  time  in  the  house  in 
Petrograd  even  though  it  is  so  very  cold  outside.    Low 


Fig.  49.    The  Middle  Horse   is  trained  to  trot,  while  the   Out- 
side Ones  usually  gallop 

Courtesy  of  JMr.  B.  E.  Baker,  Boston 

sleighs  carrying  people  wrapped  up  to  their  noses  in  furs 
are  dashing  hither  and  thither  through  the  streets.  The 
Russian  drivers  never  go  slowly,  but  urge  their  willing 
horses  until  we  hold  our  breath  for  fear  of  an  accident. 

Notice  in  the  picture,  above,  the  peculiar  wooden  arch 
over  the  horse.  The  duga,  as  it  is  called,  is  fastened  to 
the  ends  of  the  shafts  and  is  used  on  all  Russian  teams. 
Tlu'ee  horses  are  often  driven  abreast,  as  you  see  in  the 


A  TRIP  THROUGH  RUSSIA  129 

picture.   The  middle  one  is  trained  to  trot,  while  the  outside 
ones  usually  gallop. 

The  canal  leading  from  Petrograd  to  Kronstadt,  t\\enty- 
five  miles  away,  is  frozen  over  for  several  months,  and  a 
roadway  for  teams  is  marked  on  it  by  a  row  of  evergreen 
trees  fastened  in  the  ice  on  either  side.  As  the  horses  dasli 
down  this  frozen  highway  between  the  green  trees,  it  seems 
as  if  it  Avere  Christmas  time,  and  that  this  must  be  the 
place  where  Christmas  trees  for  all  the  Avorld  are  for  sale. 

In  the  summer,  ferryboats  ply  from  one  shore  of  the  Neva 
River  to  the  other.  In  the  winter,  passengers  are  taken  across 
in  chairs  furnished  with  warm  robes.  The  chairs  are  pro- 
pelled by  skaters,  who  push  one  swiftly  across  the  river  for 
less  than  a  penny. 

It  is  fascinating  to  watch  the  skaters  in  the  skating  gar- 
dens on  the  canal.  Did  you  ever  see  such  graceful  figures  ? 
Every  one,  old  and  young,  knows  how  to  skate,  for  the 
winter  is  so  long  that  there  is  plenty  of  time  for  practice. 

The  boys  and  girls  have  great  fun  making  snow  houses, 
which  they  people  with  snow  boys  and  girls.  Water  poured 
over  them  freezes  them  into  solid  statues  wliich  remam  as 
playthmgs  for  the  children  for  several  months. 

Tln-oughout  almost  its  entire  area,  Russia  is  one  vast 
plani.  The  Ural  jNIountains,  the  backbone  of  the  country, 
divide  it  from  Siberia,  and  the  lofty  Caucasus  lie  near  its 
southern  border.  Nowhere  else  within  its  boundaries,  from 
the  Arctic  Ocean  to  tiie  Black  Sea  and  from  the  Caspian 
to  the  Baltic,  are  there  mountains  worthy  of  the  name.  Tlie 
only  exceptions  are  the  Valdai  Hills  in  the  west-central 
part,  the  highest  of  which  is  only  about  a  thousand  feet. 
These  hills  are  the  center  in  which  many  of  the  rivers 


130 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  —  EUROPE 


of  Russia  have  their  source.  Winding  southward  through 
forests  or  through  fields  of  wheat,  rye,  potatoes,  and  blue- 
eyed  flax,  or  making  their  way  slowly  toward  the  deso- 
late arctic  waters,  are  the  Volga,  Don,  Dnieper,  Diina, 
Dwina,  Onega,  and  many  smaller  streams,  all  of  which  — 
through  the  means  of  communication  which  they  furnish 
and  through  the  commerce  which  is  carried  on  in  their 
waters  —  give  union  and  strength  to  this  great  country. 


Fig.  50.    We  are   surprised  to  find  in  a  Latitude  as  far  north 
AS  THE  Klondike  Region  in  Canada  the  Port  of  Archangel 


These  long,  navigable  highways  are  the  best  roads  in  Russia. 
Many  canals  connect  these  rivers  and  their  branches,  so  that 
it  is  possible  to  go  by  water  from  the  White  Sea  to  the 
Caspian  or  from  the  Baltic  to  the  Black. 

The  northward-bound  rivers  flow  for  hundreds  of  miles 
through  forests  of  dark  pines,  where  the  gloomy  shades  are 
lightened  by  clusters  of  silvery  birch.  In  the  regions  farther 
north  the  trees  become  smaller  and  smaller  until .  only  a 
stunted  growth  dots  the  wide  plain  which  stretches,  bare 
of  all  vegetation,  to  the  lonely  arctic  sea.   The  rivers  wind 


A  TRIP  THROUGH  RUSSIA  131 

slowly  through  the  desolate  frozen  marshes,  or  tundras, 
until  they  lose  themselves  in  the  northern  ocean. 

We  do  not  expect  to  see  cities  and  towns  in  such 
a  region,  and  we  are  somewhat  surprised  to  find  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Dwina  Kiver,  in  a  latitude  as  far  north  as 
the  Klondike  region  in  Canada,  the  port  of  Archangel,  a 
city  of  twenty  thousand  or  more  inhabitants.  For  many 
weeks  in  winter  the  sun  cheers  the  lonely  town  for  only 
a  few  hours  each  day,  but  the  brio-ht  moon,  the  "-litter- 
ing  stars,  and  the  gleaming  northern  liglits  make  the  long- 
nights  radiant. 

In  the  Dwina  liiver,  during  the  few  months  that  it  is 
open,  you  would  see  great  rafts  of  lumber  which  have  come 
from  the  forests  hundreds  of  miles  away  to  the  south.  This 
lumber  may  later  be  found  in  tlie  shipyards  on  the  Clyde 
River  or  at  some  lumber  wharf  on  the  Thames.  Before 
Petrograd  was  built  much  more  lumber,  fish,  wheat,  flax, 
and  hemp  were  sent  to  England  and  other  places  by  way 
of  Archangel  than  now. 

AVe  are  glad  to  leave  these  desolate  regions  and  follow 
the  river  southward  toward  the  great  forests.  These  stretch 
through  central  Russia,  from  the  Baltic  Sea  to  the  Ural 
Mountains,  and  cover  nearly  half  of  the  country,  an  area 
large  enough  to  include  California,  Nevada,  Utah,  Arizona, 
New  Mexico,  and  Texas. 

There  are  few  real  roads  through  the  forests,  only  open 
spaces  where  one  may  drive  for  hours  and  days  and  even 
weeks  without  reaching  the  open  plain.  Perhaps  you  have 
seen  pictures  or  have  read  stories  of  travelers  through  the 
woods  being  attacked  by  wolves.  This  is  not  uncommon, 
for  the  wolves   and  bears  sometimes  become  fierce  from 


132 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 


hunger  and  attack  cattle  in  some  near-by  farmyard,  or 
even  children  from  some  of  the  villages  on  the  outskk'ts  of 
the  forest. 

In  a  visit  to  one  of  these  villages  we  should  probably 
find  at  home  only  the  very  old  people,  the  women,  and 
the  children,  for  the  men  are  away  cutting  timber  in  the 
forests,  fishing  in  the  polar  seas,  or  trapping  in  the  deep 


Fig.  51.    "  Russian  Villages  are  All  very  Similar  in  Appearance  " 
Courtesy  of  Mr.  B.  E.  Baker,  Boston 


woods.  Russian  villages  are  all  very  similar  m  appear- 
ance, and  having  seen  one  we  shall  know  what  most  of 
them  are  like. 

In  the  forested  area  the  little  one-story  houses  of  one  or 
two  rooms  are  made  of  logs  -or  of  rough  boards  plugged 
with  moss,  and  have  wooden  roofs.  In  the  southern  plains, 
far  away  from  the  forests,  the  cottages  are  usually  made  of 
clay,  or  of  brick  or  stone,  and  the  roofs  are  thatched  with 
straw.    Three  small  windows,  with  their  frames  pamted 


A  TRIP  THROUGH  RUSSIA 


133 


red  or  green,  are  in  the  front ;  and  the  door,  reached  tlirough 
a  yard  littered  with  farming  tools,  chickens,  and  pigs,  is  on 
the  side.  Each  house  has  near  it  a  wattled  shed  for  fodder 
and  stores  or  for  shelter  for  the  animals.  In  the  coldest 
weather  the  cow  and  horse  are  often  taken  into  the  house 
for  warmth  and  occupy  one  of  the  two  rooms.    In  the  very 


Fig.  62.    "The   Little   Oxe-Stokv  Houses  of  One  ok  Two  Rooms 

are  made  of  logs " 
Courtesy  of  Mr.  B.  E.  Baker,  Boston 

poorest  houses  the  family  and  animals  sometimes  live  in 
the  same  room  during  the  coldest  part  of  the  whiter. 

Our  eyes  gradually  become  accustomed  to  the  dim  light 
of  the  room  in  which  we  are  standing,  and  we  look  curi- 
ously around.  There  is  very  little  furniture.  A  bench 
extends  around  three  sides  of  the  room  against  the  wall; 
two  or  three  rough  chairs,  and  a  rude  table  on  which  are  a 
few  wooden  bowls  and  spoons,  occupy  most  of  the  space. 
A  loom  stands  near  the  window  and  shows  signs  of  hard 


134 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 


use,  for  in  the  villages  far  from  towns  and  cities  most  of 
the  coarse  cloth  used  for  clothing  is  woven  by  hand. 

The  stove  interests  us  more  than  a,ny  other  piece  of  fur- 
niture. It  is  a  huge,  clumsy  affair,  reaching  nearly  to  the 
ceiling  and  occupying  one  quarter  of  the  whole  apartment. 
The  cooking  is  done  by  placing  the  pots  among  the  glow- 
ino;  coals  after  the  roarinor  wood  fire  has  burned  down.  The 
coarse,  dark  rve  bread  is  baked  after  the  coals  are  raked  out. 


4l^^J^  i>  f"^!^ 


iiii»  III   n  i^g« 


Fig.  53.    Near   the   House   is  a    Wattled    Shed   for   Fodder   and 

Stores  or  for  Shelter  for  the  Animals 

Courtesy  of  Mr.  B.  E.  Baker,  Boston 

These  Russian  boys  and  girls  would  be  very  much  sur- 
prised at  our  food  and  astonished  at  the  many  different 
kinds  of  tilings  which  we  eat.  They  have  little  besides  their 
black  bread,  cabbage  soup,  and  perhaps  a  piece  of  dried  or 
salted  fish.  How  should  you  like  black  bread  spread  with 
sunflower  oil  for  your  supper,  or  sunflower  seeds  to  eat 
instead  of  peanuts  ?  You  have  probably  never  seen  a 
sunflower  farm,  but  to  the  Russian  children  these  farms 
are  familiar  sights,  for  thousands  of  acres  are  covered  with 
the  tall  waving  plant  and  the  big  sunny  blossoms. 


A  TRIP  THROUGH  RUSSIA  135 

The  little  village  which  we  are  describing  consists  of 
thirty  or  forty  houses,  a  small  church,  and  a  two-story 
building  which  contains  a  store.  The  houses  are  all  similar 
to  the  one  which  has  been  described,  and  thev  stand  in  two 
long  rows  along  the  wide  street,  if  such  it  can  be  called. 
It  is  frozen  in  deep  ruts  in  the  winter,  is  ankle  deep  in  dust 
in  the  summer,  and  is  well-nigh  impassable  because  of  the 
mud  in  spring  and  fall. 

Whether  our  journey  takes  us  into  the  forested  area  of 
Russia,  or  into  the  treeless,  fertile,  "  black-earth "  region 
farther  south,  or  into  the  more  arid  lands  to  the  southeast, 
we  shall  find  villages  similar  to  the  one  described.  The 
muddy  or  dusty  streets,  the  rows  of  houses  on  either  side 
with  the  windows  facing  their  opposite  neighbors,  the 
littered  farmyards,  the  widespreading  plain  around,  with 
its  cultivated  fields  and  pasture  lands,  can  be  found  in 
thousands  of  Russian  A'illages.  In  no  other  country  m  the 
world,  probably,  is  there  such  a  similarity  of  life  over  so 
wide  an  area. 

Of  course  there  are  in  Russia  people  who  live  in  a  differ- 
ent fashion ;  but  nearly  all  of  the  population  is  made  up 
of  these  peasants  of  whose  life  you  have  just  read.  Some 
one  has  said  :  "  The  Russian  peasant  is  the  Russian  nation. 
He  tills  the  fields,  fills  the  factories,  consumes  the  tea,  pays 
the  taxes,  equips  the  army,  fights  the  battles,  mans  the  ships ; 
he  holds  in  his  breast  the  destiny  of  the  Slav  race." 

Lumbering  in  Russia  is  carried  on  in  much  the  same  way 
as  it  is  in  our  country,  except  that  it  is  done  for  the  most 
part  without  the  aid  of  machinery.  The  men  have  their 
logging  camps,  river  piles,  log  jams,  log  rafts,  and  river 
drivers,  all  much  the  same  as  in  the  United  States.    Nearly 


136 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES —  EUROPE 


every  stream  flowing  from  the  lumber  region  carries  with  it 
its  share  of  the  lumber  harvest.  One  can  hear  the  shouts  of 
the  men  as  they  break  the  jam,  or  the  scream  of  saws  in  the 
busy  mills,  just  as  in  ^Nlaine  or  ^linnesota  or  Washington. 
Some  one  has  said,  "  What  coal  is  to  Great  Britain,  the 
forests  are  to  Russia."'  If  the  wood  which  is  cut  every  year 
were   sawed   into  four-foot  lengths  and  stacked  up  four 


Fig.  54.    Russian  Peasants 
Courtesy  of  Mr.  B.  E.  Baker,  Boston 

feet  high,  the  pile  would  extend  more  than  eighty-two 
thousand  miles,  or  nearly  three  and  one-haK  times  around 
the  earth  at  the  equator.  Most  of  this  wood  is  used  in 
Russia  alone.  What  a  great  variety  of  articles,  and  what 
enormous  quantities  of  them,  may  be  made  from  it  I  Of 
course  an  immense  amount  is  used  for  fuel,  as  coal  is  un- 
known throughout  the  greater  part  of  Russia,  and  the  huge 
stoves  need  ample  food  during  the  long,  cold  winter.  Tlien, 
too,  as  in  Sweden,  much  of  the  srnelting  of  iron  is  done 


A  TRIP  THROUGH  RUSSIA  137 

^•ith  charcoal  instead  of  ^^•ith  coal  or  coke,  and  as  a  conse- 
quence a  very  superior  quality  of  iron  is  produced. 

Another  use  of  charcoal  is  for  making  tea.  Russians  are 
great  tea  drinkers  and  consume  nearly  one  fourth  of  all 
the  tea  raised  in  the  world.  Tea  is  usually  made  in  a 
samovar.  This  peculiarly  Russian  dish  is  of  brass  or  co[)per. 
In  the  center  of  it  is  a  cylinder  filled  with  burning  char- 
coal, and  around  this  is  a  space  for  the  water,  which  is 
thus  always  kept  hot  and  ready  for  use. 

The  Russians  are  skillful  workers  and  make  out  of  wood 
nearly  everything  one  can  think  of.  Each  village  has  its 
specialty  at  which  the  men,  between  harvests  or  in  the 
winter,  work  in  groups  of  half  a  dozen  or  more.  In  one 
village  are  made  barrels,  in  another  spoons,  tubs,  chairs, 
spinning  wheels,  sledges,  or  pails,  or,  perhaps,  dni/as,  the 
arches  which  are  worn  over  the  horses'  heads.  Sometimes 
different  parts  of  the  same  article  are  made  hi  different 
hamlets;  as,  for  instance,  in  the  case  of  wheels,  one 
village  makes  the  hubs,  another  the  spokes,  and  a  third 
the  rims. 

It  is  said  that  even  if  all  the  many  great  factories  of 
Russia  were  closed,  the  thousands  of  peasants  in  the  little 
villages  far  from  the  railroad  would  not  be  inconvenienced, 
for  most  of  the  articles  used  by  them  in  their  simple  lives 
are  made  not  in  the  factories,  but  in  the  hamlets  and  towns 
bv  the  peasants  themselves.  ISIot  only  wooden  articles  are 
made,  but  those  of  metals  and  of  fibers  —  cotton,  hemp, 
flax,  and  silk.  Around  Nizhni  Novgorod  fifty  or  more  vil- 
lages are  engaged  in  making  hemp  fishing  nets.  Thousands 
of  families  dress  hides  and  skins  and  prepare  sheepskin 
for  clothinGT. 


138 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 


Great  quantities  of  the  products  of  the  factories  and 
the  busy  households  are  shipped  down  the  Volga  River,  for 
through  this  important  water  route  Russia  furnishes  many 
necessary  supplies  not  only  to  her  own  people  on  the  plains 
of  the  south  but  also  to  the  people  of  Siberia,  Turkestan, 
and  other  countries  of  western  and  central  Asia. 


Fig.  55.    Great   Quantities   of   the   Products   of   the   Factories 
AXD  Households  are  shipped  down  the  Volga  River 


A  voyage  on  this  largest  of  all  European  rivers  is  very 
mteresting.  We  pass  huge  rafts  of  lumber  as  high  as  a 
house  floating  down  to  the  treeless  regions  of  the  south. 
On  each  is  a  rough  log  hut  in  which  the  rivermen  live,  for 
a  trip  from  the  forest  region  to  the  Caspian  Sea  on  such 
slow  craft  takes  some  weeks. 

Should  we  examine  the  cargoes  of  some  of  the  vessels 
which   glide    slowly  along  with   the   current,   we    should 


A  TRIP  THROUGH  RUSSIA  139 

find  a  greater  variety  of  wooden  articles  than  we  ever 
saw  before.  There  seems  to  be  everything  on  board  —  from 
bowls  and  spoons,  chairs  and  tables,  to  readj'-made  houses. 
Some  of  these  things  may  be  found  later  in  the  cottages  on 
the  southern  plains,  and  some  will  be  used  by  the  people 
in  far-away  Bokhara,  Persia,  and  Turkestan. 

Ships  loaded  heavily  with  corn,  oats,  rye,  barley,  and 
other  grains  drift  slowly  down  the  great  river  to  furnish 
food  to  the  animals  and  people  in  the  barren  regions  of 
the  southeast.  Cargoes  of  flax  will  supply  the  material 
for  Russian  blouses,  Persian  robes,  and  Turkish  garments. 
There  are  barges  of  cattle,  which  gaze  calmly  at  their  four- 
footed  relatives  on  the  shore,  and  boats  laden  with  rich 
furs  from  the  wealth  of  animal  life  in  the  forest  belt. 

Even  more  interesting  are  the  craft  ascending  the  river. 
We  meet  many  barges  loaded  with  petroleum  from  the  oil 
fields  of  Baku,  an  interesting  place  situated  on  the  western 
shore  of  the  Caspian  Sea.  This  region  is  one  of  the  greatest 
oil-producing  areas  of  the  world.  Wheat  from  the  "  black- 
earth  "  region  is  carried  up  the  Volga  and  thence  by  canal 
to  Petrograd,  or  even  to  Archangel,  whence  it  is  shipped 
to  other  countries..  There  are  loads  of  salt  from  the  barren 
steppes,  and  cargoes  of  furs  and  skins  from  the  plains  in 
the  southeast  and  from  Siberia,  Persia,  and  Turkestan. 
Among  them  are  great  piles  of  coltskins,  many  of  which 
will  be  shipped  from  Petrograd  or 'Riga  to  the  shoe  fac- 
tories in  the  United  States.  There  are  also  pony  skins, 
which  will  follow  the  same  route  to  our  country  and  will 
be  made  up  into  fur  coats. 

Little  Mother  Volga,  as  the  Russians  call  the  river,  is 
about   as  long,   as  placid,   and   as   majestic   as   our  great 


140 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 


Mississippi.  Notice  on  the  map  the  sharp  turn  in  its  lower 
course,  where  it  bends  abruptly  to  the  east.  A  layer  of 
hard  rock  lay  in  its  way,  causing  it  to  flow  toward  the 
southeast  and  into  the  landlocked  Caspian  rather  than  into 
the  Black  Sea.    The  river  is  therefore  of  less  importance 

commercially,  as  all  the 
goods  destined  for  ocean 
freight  have  to  be  taken 
I)}'  railroad  across  to  the 
Don  River,  just  at  the  place 
where  the  two  streams 
come  the  nearest  together. 
Sometime  a  canal  may  con- 
nect them  at  this  point,  so 
that  goods  can  be  taken 
from  one  river  to  the  other 
without  unloading.  Not- 
withstanding its  disadvan- 
tage in  flowing  into  a 
landlocked  sea,  much  more 
traffic  is  carried  on  on  the 
Volga  than  on  any  other 
Russian  river. 
As  we  near  the  lower  Volga  we  see  many  fishing  boats, 
and  we  pass  ships  going  north,  loaded  with  quantities  of 
ismglass,  dried  and  salted  fish,  and  a  delicacy  known  as 
caviare,  which  is  made  from  the  eggs  of  the  sturgeon. 
The  lower  Volga  and  the  Caspian  Sea  are  among  the 
most  important  fishing  grounds  of  the  world,  and  the  yield 
of  these  waters  is  worth  more  than  that  of  Norway  and 
Newfoundland  put  together. 


Fig.  56. 


Russian    Peasant    on   a 
Volga  Boat 


A  TRIP  THROUGH  RUSSIA  141 

Astrakhan,  situated  about  twenty-five  miles  from  the 
mouth  of  the  Volga,  is  very  attractive  when  seen  from  the 
water.  The  tall,  slender  minarets  of  numerous  mosques 
gleam  among  the  cupolas  and  domes  of  its  many  churches. 
In  the  outskirts  are  neat-looking  vineyards  and  flourishing 
fruit  and  vegetable  gardens,  where  grow  the  ever-present 
cucumber  and  delicious  watermelons.  But  if  you  wish  to 
hold  the  illusion  that  Astrakhan  is  an  interesting  city,  do 
not  enter  it.  "An  ancient  and  fishlike  smell"  fills  the 
place,  while  dust  and  du-t  and  badly  paved  streets  do  not 
invite  one  to  a  long  stay. 

Of  all  its  cities  Moscow,  the  capital  of  Russia,  is  the 
most  interesting  to  visitors,  for,  removed  as  it  is  from  foreign 
influences,  it  is  more  purely  Russian  than  are  the  coast  cities. 
If  Petrograd  is  the  eye  of  Russia,  Moscow  is  the  heart. 
It  is  situated  almost  in  the  center  of  the  great  country  on 
the  little  river  Moskva,  which,  though  navigable  for  small 
vessels  only,  gives  the  city,  through  its  canal  connections, 
water  communication  with  the  Black,  Caspian,  and  Baltic 
seas  and  with  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  Moscow  is  the  chief 
railroad  center  of  Russia,  and  all  main  routes  converge 
here.  From  the  great  white  railroad  station  one  may  start 
over  the  Trans-Siberian  Railroad  on  a  two  or  three  weeks' 
journey  to  far-away  Vladivostok  on  the  Pacific  coast. 

A  view  of  Moscow  from  an  airship  would  be  most  inter- 
esting. Mixed  with  the  foliage  of  the  many  trees  and  the 
varied  colors  of  the  houses,  rise  hundreds  of  towers  and 
domes  brilliant  in  gilt,  spangled  with  stars,  or  blue  as  the 
sky  above.  Great  chimneys,  rivaling  in  number  the  domes 
and  towers,  pour  forth  their  dark  clouds  of  smoke.  Around 
the  city  stretches  an  ancient  wall,  twenty-six  miles  long, 


142 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  -EUROPE 


useless  now  for  purposes  of  defense.  In  the  center  of 
the  city  Ave  can  see,  m  the  shape  of  a  triangle,  a  higher 
wall  broken  by  great  towers  and  massive  gates,  some  of 
which  date  back  to  a  time  before  the  discovery  of  America. 
Within  the  inclosure  are  many  buildings  —  the  cathedral 

where  the  czars  of  the 
great  empire  have  been, 
crowned,  the  royal  palace 
where  they  lived,  other 
churches  and  palaces, 
and  the  tall  tower  of 
Ivan  the  Terrible,  a 
former  ruler  of  Russia, 
whose  character  may  be 
imagined  from  the  title 
given  to  him  by  his 
subjects.  In  the  tower 
hangs  the  largest  bell 
which  has  ever  been 
rung  in  the  whole  world, 
and  at  the  base  stands 
a  much  larger  one,  the 
Great  Bell  of  Moscow, 
as  it  is  usually  called. 
This  bell  has  never  been  hung  or  rung.  While  it  was 
being  raised  to  the  tower  it  fell,  and  a  great  piece  was 
broken  out  of  the  side,  making  a  hole  so  large  that  a  per- 
son much  taller  than  vou  might  walk  through  it  without 
bending  his  head.  Moscow  is  a  city  of  bells.  All  of  its  four 
hundred  churches  contain  several,  and  some  of  them  are 
ringing  most  of  the  time. 


«  .i"'  ,-.  Underwood 

Fig.  57.     The   Tall  Tower   of  Ivax 

THE  Terrible   and  the  Great  Bell 

AT  ITS  Base 


A  TRIP  THROUGH  RUSSIA  143 

This  collection  of  churches,  palaces,  monasteries,  towers, 
and  fortifications  is  called  the  Kremlin.  Every  Russian  city 
has  one,  but  the  Kremlin  of  JNIoscow  is  the  most  celebrated. 

Let  us  alight  from  our  airship  and  explore  those  parts  of 
the  city  where  the  great  chimneys  are  thickest.  In  ordinary 
years  Petro^rad  ranks  first  amoncf  Russian  cities  in  com- 
merce,  while  Moscow  leads  in  manufacturing  and  popula- 
tion. There  are  nearly  fifteen  hundred  factories  hi  the  city, 
among  them  many  large  silk,  woolen,  and  cotton  mills.  The 
situation  of  Moscow,  in  the  most  thickly  populated  part  of 
the  country,  and  its  railroad  and  water  connections  all  help 
in  the  development  of  trade  and  manufacture. 

There  are  cotton  and  woolen  factories  in  the  city  in 
which  the  machinery  is  as  modern  as  that  which  may  be 
found  in  the  mills  of  ]\Ianchester,  England,  or  in  Lowell, 
Lawrence,  or  Fall  River,  Massachusetts.  There  are  large 
factories,  too,  where  very  beautiful  silks  and  velvets  are 
made.  There  are  also  sugar  refineries,  for  the  neighboring 
farmers  raise  great  quantities  of  sugar  beets.  Those  long, 
low  buildings  with  the  sparks  flying  from  the  chimneys 
are  iron  foundries,  rolling  mills,  and  other  establishments 
for  the  manufacture  of  iron  and  steel,  for  rich  h'on  and 
coal  deposits  lie  not  far  from  ]\Ioscow.  Tula,  situated 
about  a  hundred  miles  farther  south,  manufactures  many 
articles  of  iron  and  steel,  and  is  sometimes  called  the 
Sheffield  of  Russia. 

The  leather  industry  of  Russia  is  very  important.  In 
spite  of  the  enormous  production  of  hides  and  skins,  many 
of  which  are  exported  to  other  countries,  Russia  imports 
for  home  manufacture,  in  ordinary  years,  millions  of  dollars' 
worth,  chiefly  from  Germany  and  other  countries  of  Central 


144  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 

Europe,  France,  the  British  Isles,  and  Persia.  Perhaps 
some  of  you  may  own  a  pocketbook  or  a  cardcase  made 
of  the  so-called  Russia  leather,  which  has  such  an  agreeable 
odor.  The  smell  is  given  to  the  leather  by  the  birch  oil  and 
bark  which  is  used  in  the  tanning  process. 

Many  years  ago,  before  the  time  of  canals  and  railroads, 
merchants  and  producers  carried  their  goods  miles  and  even 
hundreds  of  miles  overland  or  by  river  to  great  centers, 
where  they  were  sold  or  exchanged  for  other  merchandise. 
There  were  many  such  markets  in  olden  times,  in  both 
Europe  and  Asia,  where  large  fairs  were  held,  and  in  some 
places  the  custom  still  prevails. 

Of  all  these  cities  Nizhni  Novgorod  is  to-day  the  most 
important.  Its  situation  at  the  junction  of  the  Volga  and 
Oka  rivers  is  similar  to  that  of  Lyon  on  the  Saone  and 
Rhone,  or  of  St.  Louis  near  the  meeting  place  of  the  Missis- 
sippi and  the  Missouri,  the  influence  of  the  two  navigable 
rivers  in  each  case  contributing  to  the  importance  of  the  city. 

For  the  greater  part  of  the  year  Nizhni  Novgorod  is 
a  city  about  the  size  of  Albany,  the  capital  of  New  York 
State ;  but  for  six  weeks  every  summer  it  is  more  than 
twice  the  size  of  that  city,  and  contains  more  goods  for 
sale  than  a  great  many  large  cities  put  together.  During 
the  time  that  the  fair  lasts  one  can  meet  in  the  streets  of 
Nizhni,  merchants  from  all  over  Russia,  as  well  as  turbaned 
Turks,  swarthy  Armenians,  slant-eyed  Chinese,  dark-skinned 
people  of  India,  tall  Persians,  vivacious  Frenchmen,  light- 
haired  Germans,  dignified  Englishmen,  and  businesslike 
representatives  from  the  great  firms  of  the  L^nited  States. 

The  wholesale  merchant  asks  more  for  his  goods  than 
they  are  worth;  the  customer  offers  less  than  he  knows 


A  TRIP  THROUGH  RUSSIA 


145 


he  will  have  to  pay.  After  much  discussion,  during  which 
many  cups  of  the  ever-present  tea  are  consumed,  a  bargain 
is  made  in  which  both  parties  are  satisfied.  In  many  cases 
the  amount  paid  for  goods  at  the  fair  decides  their  price 
for  the  coming  year  all  over  the  world. 

As  we  stroll  through  the  streets  we  are  astonished  at 
the  amount  of  merchandise.    We  certainly  never  saw  so 


Fig.  58.    Sheepskins   and    Goatskins    from    Southeastern    Russia 

AND   THE    Neighboring    Parts    of   Western    Asia    being    unloaded 

ON  the  Sands  at  Nizhni  Novgorod 

Courtesy  of  Mr.  B.  E.  Baker,  Boston 

much  in  one  place  before.  The  wharves  are  piled  high  witli 
iron  from  the  rich  Donetz  valley  to  the  south ;  the  grana- 
ries near  the  river  are  filled  with  wheat  from  the  fertile, 
"  black-earth "  region,  oats  from  the  north,  and  rye  from 
all  over  the  kingdom.  The  streets  in  that  part  of  the  town 
where  the  fair  is  held  are  laid  out  at  right  angles  and  each 
one  has  its  own  particular  article  for  sale.  The  fur  exhibits 
are  especially  interesting.    One  finds  piles  of  bear,  wolf,  and 


146 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES —  EUROPE 


fox  skins  from  the  Far  North;  sable,  marten,  and  ermine 
from  Siberia ;  otter  from  the  peninsula  of  Kamchatka,  and 
beaver  from  the  streams  of  Canada.  There  are  pony  furs 
and  colt,  sheep,  and  goat  skins  from  the  plains  in  south- 
eastern Russia  and  in  the  neighboring  parts  of  Asia,  and 


)  H.  C.  White.  No.  Bennington,  Vt. 

Fig.  59.   "There  are  Hlxdkkds  of  Bells  of  All  Sizes  and  Tones" 


great  piles  of   soft   lambskins  which   have   been  brought 
overland  from  Asia  to  the  Caspian  Sea  and  shipped  up 


the  Volga  from  Astraklian, 


We  are  amazed  at  the  quantity  of  tea  which  is  displayed 
in  Chinatown.  Many  merchants  buy  at  the  fair  their  sup- 
ply for  the  entire  year,  which,  because  of  the  tea-drinking 


A  TRIP  THROUGH  RUSSIA 


147 


habits  of  many  of  the  Russians,  has  to  be  a  generous  one. 
Some  of  the  tea  has  been  brought  by  water  from  Canton, 
Chuia,  but  great  quantities  have  come  on  the  long  trip 
overland  from  Kiakhta,  a  journey  of  more  than  a  year. 


)  U.  C.  White,  No.  Bennington,  Vt. 

Fig.  60.    Cloth  Market,  Nizhni  Novgorod 


There  are  piles  of  beautiful  rugs  from  Persia,  millions 
of  yards  of  silk,  cotton,  linen,  and  woolen  goods  from  the 
factories  in  great  Russian  cities,  and  rolls  of  hand-woven 
linen  crash  from  the  homes  of  the  peasants. 


148  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 

There  are  many  tons  of  dried  and  salted  fish  from 
Archangel  and  Astrakhan ;  there  are  hundreds  of  bells 
of  all  sizes  and  tones  which  will  later,  in  scores  of  towns 
and  cities,  call  the  peasants  to  worship  ;  there  are  thousands 
of  samovars,  the  makmg  of  which  has  kept  whole  villages 
busy  for  months.  In  one  provmce  of  Russia  alone  the  people 
make  annually  more  than  forty  thousand  of  these  dishes. 

The  stores  where  jewelry  and  precious  stones  are  for  sale 
are  extremely  fascinating.  From  beyond  the  Ural  Moun- 
tains have  come  glowing  rubies,  deep-yellow  topazes,  rich 
red  garnets,  and  sapphires  blue  as  the  skies.  Then  there 
are  metals,  wonderful  enamel  work  on  silver,  and  arms 
and  cutlery  from  Russian  workshops.  There  are  barrels  of 
sugar  from  Far  Eastern  countries,  and  gaudily  painted  chests 
which  country  merchants  will  buy  to  pack  their  goods  in 
and  then  sell  to  peasants  to  store  clothes  in.  There  are 
laces  and  ribbons  and  silks  from  France  and  Germany, 
perfumes  from  France,  gems  from  India  —  in  short,  every- 
thing that  one  can  think  of  to  eat,  drink,  wear,  or  use  is 
here  displayed.  The  goods  are  not  sold  by  sample,  but  are 
bought,  packed,  loaded,  and  shipped  during  the  few  weeks 
that  the  fair  is  in  progress.  The  Volga  is  full  of  steamers  and 
barges,  and  the  railroad  station  is  piled  high  with  freight. 

The  bustle,  noise,  and  confusion  last  until  about  the 
middle  of  September,  when  the  city  settles  down  into  its 
usual  sleepy  condition,  from  which  it  is  roused  again  the 
following  summer  by  the  arrival  of  the  crowd. 

Russia  is  an  immense  country  containing  millions  of 
people.  For  many  years  the  peasants  were  serfs  or  slaves. 
An  edict  from  the  Czar  in  1861  abolished  slavery  but, 
though  freed  from  their  masters,  the  mass  of  the  people 


A  TRIP  THROUGH  RUSSIA  149 

have  been  ever  since  the  skives  of  ignorance  and  therefore 
nearly  as  helpless  as  they  were  before.  The  ruling  classes 
have  done  little  to  educate  and  uplift  the  peasants  but, 
on  the  other  hand,  have  tried  in  every  way  to  keep  them 
in  ignorance  and  poverty.  They  have  made  unjust  laws 
which  increased  the  wealth  and  power  of  the  officials  and 
nobles  but  which  made  the  life  of  the  peasants  harder. 

For  some  years  during  and  after  the  World  War,  Russia 
was  in  a  state  of  revolution.  The  peasants  realized  more 
fully  than  ever  before  the  injustice  and  oppression  under 
which  they  were  living  and  made  an  effort  to  change  their 
condition  and  make  such  things  impossible  in  the  future. 
Led  by  dreamers  and  visionaries,  they  began  to  look  for- 
ward to  a  wonderful  eliange  of  conditions,  to  a  time  when 
all  classes  of  people  should  be  equal,  when  there  should 
be  no  rich  and  no  poor,  no  crime,  no  greed,  no  poverty 
and  hunger,  no  "  bosses  "  or  overseers  or  proprietors.  The 
people  were  to  own  everything  and  run  everything.  Just 
how  mills  and  factories  were  to  run  with  no  owners,  with 
no  responsible  person  at  the  head  of  affairs,  this  great  child 
nation  was  not  sure.  But  everything  would  come  out  all 
right.  Surely  nothing  would  be  as  bad  as  it  had  been. 
They  were  free.  Nothing  else  mattered  much.  The  excited 
mobs  did  not  realize  that  they  were  bound  just  as  surely 
by  the  bonds  of  ignorance,  prejudice,  superstition,  and  lack 
of  experience  as  they  had  been  by  the  old  chains  of  slavery. 
They  did  not  know  the  best  ways  of  carrying  on  this  great 
work  of  uplifting  the  people  and  developing  the  country, 
nor  did  they  have  wise  leaders  to  help  them. 

Russia  has  had  the  sympathy  of  the  whole  world  in  her 
struggle,  and  all  civilized  nations  have  wished  to  help  her. 


150  INDUSTRIAL  .STUDIES  — EUROPE 

The  difficulty  lias  been  iu  knowing  how  to  do  it.  Soldiers 
and  armies  would  he  of  but  little  use,  for  the  mass  of  the 
people  would  look  upon  them  as  enemies  come  to  make  their 
state  worse  rather  than  better.  Other  nations  can  best  aid 
poor  Russia  by  helping  her  to  develop  her  industries,  to 
increase  her  commerce,  to  improve  her  methods  of  farming, 
and  above  all  to  build  up  her  system  of  education.  Knowl- 
edge is  power.  Russia  needs  schools  for  the  common  people, 
and  also  wise  teachers  and  honest  rulers.  When  she  possesses 
these  things,  we  shall  see  a  tremendous  development  in  tliis 
great  Slav  nation. 

Ukraine 

In  southwestern  Russia  is  the  region  known  as  Ukraine. 
The  people  Avho  live  here  are  often  called  "Little  Russians,*' 
in  contrast  with  the  "  Great  Russians  "  of  the  Moscow  and 
Petrograd  regions. 

The  surface  of  Ukrame  is,  like  most  of  Russia,  a  wide- 
stretching  plain.  The  great  forest  region  of  Russia  lies 
farther  north,  and  these  southern  plains  are  treeless  and, 
where  uncultivated,  are  covered  with  tall  grass. 

In  a  trip  through  Ukraine  we  shall  find  the  same  mo- 
notonous level  land,  the  same  desolate-appearing  villages, 
and  the  same  primitive  ways  of  life  that  prevail  in  the  rest 
of  Russia.  Yet  this  is  one  of  the  richest  parts  of  Europe. 
So  fertile  is  the  soil  that,  even  with  the  backward  methods 
of  agriculture  which  are  common  among  the  people,  large 
crops  are  produced. 

Ukraine  includes  most  of  the  famous  "  black-earth '' 
region,  where  grain  is  such  an  important  crop.  Russia  is 
one  of  the  most  important  wheat-producing  countries  of 
the  earth.    A  freight  train  long  enough  to  carry  the  crop 


A  TRIP  THROUGH  RUSSIA 


151 


would  reach  from  Boston  to  San  Francisco.    Much  of  this 
great  crop  is  raised  in  Ukraine. 

Thousands  of  peasants  from  tlie  httle  villages  dotting 
the  great  plain  plow  the  rich  soil  with  a  small  homemade 


Fig.  61.    "Odessa  is  the  Greatest  Whkat  1'out  in  the  Wuhld" 
From  "  World's  Comnierciiil  Prochicts" 

plow  which  just  scratches  the  top  of  the  ground;  they 
sow,  reap,  and  thresh  the  grain  by  hand,  and  draw  it  in 
their  small  wagons  or  low  sleds  for  long  distances  to  the 
nearest  railroad  station,  canal,  or  river,  whence  it  is  shipped 
to  Riga,  Petrograd,  or  other  ports,  but  chiefly  to  Odessa. 


152  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  —  EUROPE 

The  peasants  reserve  but  little  for  themselves,  as  the  coarse, 
dark  bread  which  is  one  of  their  chief  articles  of  food  is 
made  largely  from  rye. 

The  villages  and  towns  in  which  the  peasants  live  are 
separated  from  one  another  by  great  distances.  Each  one 
is  sure  to  be  located  by  some  meandering  stream  where  the 
villagers  can  find  water  for  their  flocks  and  herds  in  case 
of  drought.  As  one  approaches  one  of  these  villages  he 
can  see,  while  yet  a  long  way  off,  the  church  towering 
above  the  little  low  houses,  and  the  gray  old  windmills 
waviner  their  arms  in  the  breeze.  Around  the  windmills 
are  the  wagons  of  the  farmers  who  have  come  from  miles 
away  bringing  their  grain  to  the  mill  to  be  ground.  As 
soon  as  they  receive  their  grist  they  will  start  on  their 
long  homeward  journey  to  some  little  village  far  out  on 
the  great  plain. 

The  rich  soil  is  not  the  only  resource  of  Ukraine.  The 
celebrated  Donetz  coal  fields,  which  are  among  the  richest 
in  Europe,  are  in  this  region.  Much  of  the  coal  used  in 
Russian  factories  comes  from  these  Donetz  mines.  Iron 
too  is  found,  as  well  as  copper  and  mercury. 

Find  on  your  maps  the  city  of  Kiev,  once  the  capital 
of  all  Russia  and  now  an  important  city  of  Ukraine. 
It  is  a  holy  city,  and  hundreds  of  thousands  of  pilgrims 
with  staves  in  their  hands  and  wallets  on  their  backs 
visit  it  annually.  So  much  does  this  pilgrimage  mean  to 
these  poor  people  that  they  will  travel  on  foot  for  days 
and  spend  their  last  penny  for  the  sake  of  visiting  this 
holy  place. 

As  the  legend  runs,  a  thousand  years  ago  a  very  holy 
monk  came  to  Kiev  and  made  his  home  in  a  cave.    Other 


A  TRIP  THROUGH  RUSSIA 


153 


holy  men  followed  him  and  made  their  homes  in  caves. 
Many  of  them,  it  is  said,  never  came  out  again  into  the 
daylight,  but  lived  on  the  footl  left  at  the  entrance  by 
brother  monks.  When  the  food  remained  where  it  was 
placed  it  was  known  that  the  cave  monk  had  died  and  his 
niche  was  then  walled 
up.  It  is  these  tombs 
that  the  pilgrims  come 
to  visit. 

Odessa  is  the  greatest 
wheat  port  in  the  world. 
It  is  situated  on  a  high 
bluff,  on  the  edge  of 
which  is  a  fine  boulevard 
overlooking  the  water. 
The  great  stone  build- 
ings, the  wide  streets, 
the  public  squares,  the 
fine  railroad  station,  tlie 
electric  cars  and  lights, 
all  tell  us  that  Odessa 
is  a  modern  city.  Near 
the  water  are  large  flour 
mills,  oil  mills,  sugar  refineries,  soap  works,  tanneries,  and 
other  factories,  which  show  that  it  is  a  manufacturmg  center 
as  well  as  a  commercial  port. 

In  the  harbor,  which  is  finely  protected  by  strong  forts, 
there  are  vessels  from  many  countries,  bringing  to  the  city 
coal,  tea,  fruits,  agricultural  implements,  machinery,  iron 
and  steel,  and  raw  cotton.  They  reload  with  fish,  timber,  oil, 
flour,  leather,  sugar,  and  other  products  and  manufactures. 


C  Umlerwoort  &  Ilnflcrwood 

Fig.  62.    Gukat  Staircase,  Odessa 


15-1  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  —  EUllOPE 

But  they  cany  greater  quantities  of  wheat  than  uf  anything 
else  —  wheat  for  the  macaroni  makers  of  Italy,  for  the  silk 
weavers  of  France,  for  the  factory  hands  of  England. 

TOPICS  FOR  STUDY 
I 

1.  Route  from  Lisbon  to  Petrograd. 

2.  Russian  ports  on  the  Baltic  Sea. 

3.  Kronstadt  and  Petrograd. 

4.  Winter  sports  in  Russia. 

5.  Surface  and  drainage  of  Russia. 

6.  The  port  of  Archangel. 

7.  Description  of  a  Russian  village. 

8.  Description  of  a  peasant's  liome. 

9.  Forests  of  Russia. 

10.  Lumbering  in  Russia. 

11.  Household  industries. 

12.  A  trip  down  the  Volga  River  to  .Vstrakhan. 

13.  Kiev  and  Odessa. 

14.  The  old  city  of  Moscow. 

15.  Xizhni  Novgorod  and  its  great  fair. 

16.  Ukraine. 

II 

1.   Sketch  a  map  of  Russia  and  slunv  in  it 
(a)  the  forest  region ; 

(Jj)  the  "  black-earth "  region  and  Ukraine; 
(r)  the  Valdai  Hills  and  the   chief  rivers  which  have  their 

source  in  them ; 
()!)  all  the  cities  mentioned  in  the  text ; 
(e)  all  the  mountains  mentioned  in  the  text. 

2.  Sketch  a  map  of  Gernumy  and  Denmark  and  shoM'  in  it 

(a)  the  North  and  Baltic  seas ; 
(h)  the  Skagerrack  and  Kattegat; 
(c)  the  Kiel  Canal. 


A  TRIP  THROUGH  RUSSIA 


155 


3.  See  if  you  can  find  any  further  facts  about  the  life  of  Peter 
the  Great. 

4.  Name  the  three  greatest  oil-producing  countries  of  the  world. 

5.  Write  a  list  of  all  the  products  of  Russia  that  you  know. 

6.  Why  is  Tula  called  the  "SSheffield  of  Russia  "'V  Where  is 
Sheffield?    What  does  it  manufacture? 

7.  Write  a  list  of  all  the  kinds  of  furs,  hides,  and  skins  produced 
in  Russian  lands. 

8.  Write  a  list  of  articles  sold  at  the  great  fair  of  Ni/liui 
Novgorod.  Tell  where  each  was  produced  and  the  route  followed 
iu  bringing  it  to  Nizhni. 

9.  Write  as  many  differences  as  you  can  between  the  life  of  an 
American  and  a  Russian. 

10.  Write  a  list  of  all  the  likenesses  that  you  can  think  of  between 
the  Volga  and  the  Mississippi  River ;  the  differences. 


Ill 


Be  able  to  spell  and  pronounce  the  following  names.  Locate  each 
place  and  tell  what  was  said  about  it  in  this  and  iu  any  previous 
chapter.    Add  other  facts  if  possible. 


Arizona 

Klondike 

Albany 

Armenia 

Maine 

Archangel 

"  Black-earth  " 

Massachusetts 

Astrakhan 

region 

Minnesota 

Baku 

Bokhara 

Nevada 

Canton 

British  Isles 

Newfoundland 

Fall  River 

California 

New  Mexico 

Kiakhta 

Canada 

Norway 

Kiev 

Central  Europe 

Persia 

Kronstadt 

China 

Portugal 

Lawrence 

Denmark 

Siberia 

Lisbon 

England 

Sweden 

Lowell 

Erance 

'    Texas 

Lyon 

(Germany 

Tibet 

Manchester 

Great  Britain 

Turkestan 

Moscow 

India 

Ukruiue 

Nizhni  Novgorod 

Italy 

Utah 

Odessa 

Kamchatka 

Washington 

Petrograd 

156 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  —  EUROPE 


Reval 

Riga 

St.  Louis 

San  Francisco 

Sheffield 

Tula 

Vladivostok 

Caucasus  Mountains 
Ural  Mountains 
Valdai  Hills 

Clyde  River 
Dnieper  River 


Don  River 
Douetz  River 
Diina  River 
Dwina  River 
^Mississippi  River 
JMissouri  River 
Moskva  River 
Neva  River 
Oka  River 
Onega  River 
Rhone  River 
Saone  River 
Thames  River 
Volga  River 


Baltic  Sea 
Black  Sea 
Caspian  Sea 
English  Channel 
Gulf  of  Finland 
Kiel  Canal 
Kattegat 
North  Sea 
Skaggerack 
Strait  of  Dover 
White  Sea 


CHAPTER  IX 
FINLAND  AND  LAPLAND 

North  and  east  of  the  arms  of  the  Baltic  Sea  lies  the 
country  of  Finland.  It  is,  indeed,  a  ''  fen-land,"  a  region 
of  swamps  and  marshes  and  lakes,  of  deep  forests,  of  short 
and  cold  winter  days  and  long  and  hot  summer  ones. 

Finland  is  often  called  "  The  Land  of  a  Thousand  Lakes." 
Five  thousand  or  even  ten  thousand  would  probabl}^  come 
nearer  the  actual  number.  In  parts  of  Finland  they  form  a 
network,  separated  by  deep  forests  and  impassable  marshes. 
This  feature  of  its  surface  has  been  a  hindrance  to  the 
development  of  the  country,  but  the  patient,  energetic 
Finlander  has  bit  by  bit  overcome  these  disadvantages  by 
draining  large  areas  of  land  and  by  connecting  the  lakes 
with  canals,  thus  forming  continuous  waterways  which  are 
the  chief  highways  of  the  country.  Villages  and  industries 
have  sprung  up  in  places  once  remote  and  inaccessible. 
By  means  of  the  canals  and  lakes,  in  the  summer  season 
one  can  explore  a  large  part  of  Finland,  and  in  the  winter 
one  can  travel  for  many  miles  over  their  frozen  surfaces. 
Some  of  the  poorer  people  of  southern  Finland  where  the 
lakes  are  the  most  numerous  find  their  chief  occupation 
in  fishing. 

Most  of  the  rivers  are  unnavigable  and  are  used  chiefly 
for  water  power  and  for  the  transporting  of  logs  from 
the  inland  forests  to  the  large  sawmills  near  the  sea. 

157 


158 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 


From  earliest  times  Finland  had  to  fight  against  the 
desire  of  both  Kussia  and  Sweden  to  possess  her  territory. 
She  was  annexed,  first  by  one  and  then  by  the  other  of  these 
two  countries,  until  in  1808  she  was  separated  permanently 
from  Sweden  and  came  under  Russian  rule.  Since  the 
World  War  she  has  declared  her  independence  of  Russia, 


Pig.  63.   The  Winter  Sports  are  very  Enjoyable 


Because  of  the  rigorous  climate  in  which  they  live  the 
Finlanders  are  a  sturdy  race.  The  winters  in  this  northern 
land  are  hard  and  long  with  very  little  sunshine.  During 
December  and  January  there  are  days  and  weeks  when 
the  sun  does  not  come  above  the  horizon  and  the  people 
in  the  northern  part  of  the  country  live  in  twilight.  In 
spite  of  the  short  days  and  the  lack  of  sunlight  it  is  the 
winter  season  that  the  Finlander  loves  the  best. 


FINLAND  AND  LAPLAND  159 

The  cold  is  not  so  severe  as  one  might  imagine  from  the 
northerly  position  of  the  country.  This  is  because  of  the 
warmth  from  the  Gtilf  Stream  which  is  carried  to  the  con- 
tinent by  the  westerly  winds.  The  weather  is  cold  enough, 
however,  to  keep  the  country  covered  all  winter  with  a 
white  frozen  blanket  of  snow.  This  is  the  time  of  skating 
parties,  of  gay  sledge  rides,  of  merrymakings  on  skis  and 
snowshoes. 

If  you  lived  in  Finland  in  the  summer  you  would  scarcely 
know  when  to  go  to  bed,  for  there  are  weeks  when  the 
sun  barely  dips  below  the  horizon  and  some  nights  when 
it  can  be  seen  at  midnight,  a  low,  I'ed  ball  shining  in  the 
northern  sky.  Crops  grow  very  fast  during  the  long  hours 
of  daylight,  and,  although  the  spring  is  late  and  frosts  come 
early,  considerable  crops  of  grain  and  vegetables  are  raised. 

Most  of  the  people  are  farmers.  The  great  glacier,  which 
once  covered  the  country  and  smoothed  off  the  hills  and 
dug  the  valley  beds  for  the  lakes,  strewed  many  bowlders 
over  the  surface  of  the  land.  These  do  not  make  the 
farmer's  work  any  easier.  ^luch  of  the  land  is  better  for 
pasturage  than  it  is  for  raising  crops,  and  therefore  dairying 
lias  come  to  be  an  important  industry.  Large  quantities  of 
butter  are  exported,  and  the  Finnish  product  is  considered 
as  cpood  as  that  made  in  anv  countrv  of  the  world. 

Finland  has  little  natural  wealth.  The  soil  is  not  very 
rich,  the  climate  is  not  favorable  for  agriculture,  and  the 
mineral  wealth  is  not  great.  The  water  power  of  tlie  rivers, 
sometimes  known  as  "  white  coal,"  is  more  valuable  than 
any  deposits  of  the  black  mineral  found  below  the  surface. 
The  forests  of  Finland  are  more  valuable  than  any  other 
resource.    More  than  half  of  Finland  is  covered  with  trees, 


160 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 


and  the  chief  mdiistries  of  the  country  are  connected  with 
them.  Little  coal  is  used,  and  the  people  would  hardly 
know  how  to  get  along  without  wood  tor  fuel.  Thousands 
of  men  work  in  the  forests,  and  scores  of  sawmills,  situated 
on  the  swift  streams  and  near  the  waterfalls,  are  operated  by 

water  power.  Lum- 
ber is  produced  and 
exported  in  large 
quantities.  Li  con- 
nection with  nearly 
all  the  sawmills  there 
are  factories  for  the 
making  of  wood 
pulp,  paper,  card- 
board, and  other 
forest  products. 

We  should  not 
expect  a  country 
with  few  natural  re- 
sources like  Finland 
to  have  very  exten- 
sive manufactures. 
Yet  in  some  of  the 
southern  cities  and 
towns  we  find  cotton  and  flour  mills,  tobacco  and  glass 
factories,  machine  shops,  and  other  industries.  In  a  part  of 
southwestern  Finland  there  are  some  splendid  granite  quar- 
ries and  the  cities  present  a  finer,  more  dignified  appearance, 
because  the  buildings  are  made  of  this  material.  Numerous 
bridges,  monuments,  and  large  buildings  in  Petrograd  are 
built  of  Finnish  granite. 


J 

littitf^ 

^Mi 

i 

1       ^ 

m 

^£^mIHI 

HI 

RlHnHH| 

^?m 

1 

y^ypti^ 

r    ' 

HidBiP~'''''^'i 

Fig 


64.    Dairying  is  ax  I.mi'01!tant  Occu- 
pation IN  Finland 

The  pails  are  full  of  milk 


FINLAND  AND   LAPLAND 


161 


Helsingfors,  the  capital  of  Finland,  is  a  very  attractive 
city  ill  spite  of  the  fact  that  its  harbor  is  closed  by  ice 
from  November  to  May.  Pine-clad  hills  surround  it,  and 
the  deep-blue  sea  studded  with  green  islands  makes  a  pleas- 
ing approach.    As  we  walk  down  the  main  boulevard  and 


-Tg^y---;^  ■«gu^~-  ;-.---  ■ 


Fig.  05.    IIi:LsiN<ii-ous  is  a  vi;i:y   Attiivctive  City 


note  the  fine  shops,  the  handsome  buildings,  the  com- 
fortable hotels,  the  open-air  restaurants,  and  listen  to 
the  music  of  the  band,  we  can  almost  imagine  ourselves 
in  Paris  or  some  other  gay  capital  of  a  more  southern 
country.  Though  the  days  are  short  and  the  winters 
cold,  Helsingfors  is  no  less  gay  in  winter  than  in  summer. 


162  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 

Horse  racing  on  the  ice,  ice-boat  sailing,  ski  contests, 
skating  parties,  and  sledge  picnics  form  an  endless  round 
of  sports. 

Should  you  like  to  visit  a  Lapp  village?  You  might 
enjoy  it  for  a  short  time,  but  I  am  sure  that  you  would 
not  like  to  make  a  long  stay,  for  neither  the  people  nor 
their  homes  are  very  clean. 

In  the  northern  part  of  Finland,  as  in  Norway,  the  only 
inliabitants  are  Lapps.  They  live  in  a  barren,  desolate 
region,  almost  impassable  in  summer  on  account  of  the 
deep  forests,  patldess  swamps,  and  hungry  mosquitoes. 
For  a  month  or  two  in  the  summer  season  the  sun  never 
sinks  below  the  horizon,  and  for  an  equal  time  in  winter 
the  people  of  arctic  Lapland  never  see  it  in  the  sky.  Their 
only  means  of  travel  in  the  long  summer  days  is  by  the 
network  of  lakes  and  rivers.  In  the  dark  days  of  winter 
their  low,  fur-tilled  sledges  are  drawn  by  reindeer  over  the 
wide,  frozen  wastes  of  untrodden  snow.  Near  their  villages 
we  might  see  large  herds  of  reindeer,  for  a  Lapp  sometimes 
owns  two  or  three  thousand  of  these  useful  animals.  There 
is  a  Lapp  woman  milking  one  of  them  while  a  man  holds 
it  with  a  kind  of  lasso  drawn  tightly  around  the  horns. 
Were  it  not  for  the  reindeer  the  Lapp  could  not  live  in 
these  cold  arctic  lands.  From  it  he  obtains  the  skin  and 
fur  for  his  clothes  and  the  meat  and  milk  for  his  food. 
It  serves  him  also  in  place  of  a  horse  and  draws  his  low 
sledge  over  the  hard  snow  at  a  tremendous  pace. 

Reindeer  Jive  on  the  arctic  moss,  which  often  lies  buried 
under  several  feet  of  snow.  With  their  horns  and  hoofs 
they  dig  away  the  snow  to  get  the  moss,  and  thus  they 
are  able  to  live  where  other  animals  would  starve. 


FINLAND  AND  LAPLAND 


16^ 


Some  Lapps  use  the  reindeer  skin  as  a  covering  for  their 
tents  ;  others  live  in  low  stone  huts  with  sods  for  the  roofs. 
A  fire  built  on  a  circle  of  flat  stones  usually  occupies  the 
center  of  the  hut  or  tent;  above  it  in  the  roof  is  a  hole 
tlirough  which  the  smoke  is  supposed  to  escape.  The  earth 
floor  is  covered  with  hay  and  spread  with  reindeer  skins 


Fig.  go.     "Were   it   not  for   the  Reindeer  the  Lapp   could  not 

LIVE    IN    THESE    COLD  ArCTIC    LaNDS  " 


on  which  the  Lapps  sit.  On  the  floor  or  leaning  against 
the  walls  are  cradles  containing  the  babies,  of  whom  there 
are  usually  several  in  a  Lapp  house.  And  mixed  in  every- 
where, adding  both  to  the  confusion  and  the  odor,  are  the 
dogs.  These  are  trained  to  assist  their  masters  in  guiding 
the  herds  of  reindeer  in  much  the  same  way  as  the  shep- 
herd dog  in  Scotland  drives  the  sheep. 


164  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 

In  their  filthy  snow  huts  in  winter  and  in  skin  tents  in 
summer,  living  on  reindeer  meat  and  fish,  these  people  of 
the  Far  North  drag  out  a  miserable  existence  which  can 
hardly  be  called  living.  They  can  neither  read  nor  write, 
nor  are  they  skilled  in  any  handwork.  All  their  strength 
and  energy  are  concentrated  in  the  effort  to  obtain  food 
and  clothing. 

TOPICS  FOR  STUDY 
I 

1.  Situation  of  Finland.  5.  Resources  of  the  region. 

2.  Surface  and  climate.  6.  Forest  industries. 

3.  History  of  Finland.  7.  Helsingfors,  the  capital. 

4.  Occupations  of  the  people.  8.  Life  of  the  Lapps. 

II 

1.  Bound  Finland. 

2.  Find  the  latitude  of  Helsingfors.  Tlirough  which  one  of  the 
United  States  possessions  does  this  parallel  rvm? 

3.  The  forests  of  Finland  are  a  part  of  the  great  wooded  belt 
of  Russia.  What  other  great  forests  are  there  in  the  northern 
hemisphere  in  about  the  same  latitude? 

4.  Ship  a  cargo  of  lumber  from  Helsingfors  to  London.  On  what 
waters  will  the  vessel  sail  ? 

5.  How  is  Finland  governed? 

6.  Hudson  Bay  is  in  nearly  the  same  latitude  as  Finland.  Which 
place  is  colder?    Why? 

Ill 

Be  able  to  spell  and  pronounce  the  following  names.  Locate 
each  place  and  tell  what  was  said  of  it  in  this  and  in  any  previous 
chapter.    Add  other  facts  if  possible. 


Finland 

Russia 

Helsingfors 

Baltic  Sea 

Lapland 

Scotland 

Paris 

Gulf  Stream 

Norway 

Sweden 

Petrograd 

CHAPTER   X 

SWEDEX  AXD  HER   FORESTS 

Before  we  leave  our  study  of  the  countries  which  are 
particularly  noted  for  their  forest  products,  let  us  go  to 
Sweden.  Like  Finland  it  contains  numerous  bodies  of  water, 
and  it  is  often  called  the  ''  Land  of  tlie  Three  Thousand 
Lakes." 

We  sail  from  Helsingfors  throusfli  the  Gulf  of  Finland 
and  across  the  open  Baltic  Sea.  Then  for  many  miles  we 
steam  through  the  winding  passages  between  the  islands 
on  the  eastern  coast  of  tlie  peninsula.  The  water  is  a  deep 
blue,  and  the  islands  are  green  with  grass  and  are  shaded 
with  beautiful  trees,  from  behind  which  peep  many  charm- 
ing country  houses,  the  summer  homes  of  people  from 
Stockholm.  Small  steamers  dart  from  island  to  island, 
sailboats  show  tlieir  white  wings,  and  lumber  boats  steam 
slowly  southward  laden  heavily  with  the  products  of  the 
northern  forests.    A  writer  has  said: 

Some  cities  are  situated  like  Berlin  on  a  plain,  others  like  Edin- 
burgh on  hills,  others  like  Copenhagen  on  islands.  Stockholm  unites 
all  three.  Parts  lie  on  the  islands,  parts  on  the  rocky  hills  several 
hundred  feet  high,  and  parts  are  as  level  as  ja.  prairie.  In  nearly 
every  direction  water,  interspersed  with  islands,  lies  around  it. 

Stockholm   has  been   called  the  Venice   of  the  North, 

but  it  is  even  more  attractive  than  its  southern  sister.   The 

wide  streets,  the  splendid  stone  buildings,  and  the  many 

165 


166 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  —  EUROPE 


bridges  connecting  the  islands  with  one  another  and  with 
the  mainland  add  greatly  to  its  beauty. 

The  oldest  part  of  the  city,  with  its  irregular  streets 
and  queer  buildings,  is  situated  chiefly  on  two  or  three 
islands.  The  newer  portion  occupies  others.  Ship  Island 
is  the  headquarters  for  a  part  of  the  Swedish  navy  and 
contains  shipbuilding  yards  and  marine  repair  shops.  In 
a  part  of  the  old  city,  situated  on  another  island,  is  the 


Fig.  67.  "Stockholm  has  been  called  the  Venice  of  the  North" 

royal  palace,  one  of  the  finest  buildmgs  in  Europe.  We 
should  have  difficulty  in  finding  our  way  in  it  without  a 
guide,  for  it  contains  more  than  eight  hundred  rooms.  On 
other  islands  are  the  zoological  gardens,  parks,  and  pleas- 
ure grounds. 

The  hills  around  Stockholm  afford  many  fine  views.  One 
can  ascend  to  the  heights  by  means  of  the  zigzag  streets, 
flights  of  steps,  or  elevators.  We  take  the  Katrina  elevator, 
which  for  a  penny   lifts   us  high   above  the  tops  of  the 


SWEDEN  AND  HER  FORESTS 


167 


buildings  on  the  plain,  and  look  down  in  wonder  at  the 
scene  spread  out  below  us. 

Nearly  forty  miles  away  to  the  east  is  the  blue  Baltic, 
while  between  it  and  the  city  are  hundreds  of  islands  set 
in  the  clear  blue  water. 
To  the  west  is  Lake 
Malar  with  its  thou- 
sand and  more  islands 
dotted  with  beautiful 
mansions  and  smaller 
summer  homes.  Where 
the  waters  of  the  lake 
enter  the  bay  of  the 
Baltic  lies  Stockholm, 
gleaming  in  white  and 
yellow  at  our  feet. 
Away  to  the  north  we 
can  see  the  smoke  of  a 
freiofht  train  drawing^  its 
heavy  load  from  the  rich 
iron  region,  the  streams 
and  highways  of  which 
converge  toward  the 
city.  In  the  harbor  there 
are  vessels  bound  for 
different  countries  waiting  for  their  cargoes  of  iron  and  steel. 

Leaving  the  beautiful  view  we  reluctantly  descend  from 
the  heights  and  take  a  train  from  Stockholm  northward 
toward  the  great  forests.  On  our  way  we  shall  pass  through 
the  iron  region  of  Dannemora,  from  which  the  freight  tram 
which  we  saw  was  crawling  southward.    The  deposits  of 


O  L  iiderwouil  &  Liiidurwood 

Fig.  68.  TheKatrina  Elevator  lifts  us 

HIGH  above  the  TOPS  OF  THE  BuiLDINGS 


168 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  —  EUROPE 


Dannemora  are  very  famous,  and  iron  of  a  quality  which  has 
made  the  Swedish  product  known  over  tlie  whole  world  has 
been  mined  there  for  many  years. 

Everything  around  seems  smoky  and  dirty,  not  clean 
and  fresh  and  beautiful  as  we  had  imagmed  Sweden  to  be. 
As  we  continue  our  ride,  however,  the  country  justifies  all 
our  expectations.  Though  the  scenery  is  not  so  grand  as 
that  of  Norway,  it  is,  in  a  different  way,  equally  beautiful. 

There  are  fresh  green 
fields  dotted  with 
farms,  and  groves  of 
oak,  beech,  and  fra- 
grant pines.  There 
are  dashing  streams, 
sparkling  waterfalls, 
and  clear  blue  lakes, 
whose  deep  waters  are 
studded  with  islands 
and  -^hose  green  shores 
are  brightened  with 
dull-red  cottages. 

The  best  farms  are 
found  in  the  southern 
part  of  the  country  on  the  fertile  plains,  and  the  rich  iron 
deposits  are  in  the  south-central  part,  just  north  of  the 
region  where  the  lakes  are  largest  and  most  numerous.  In 
recent  years  still  richer  seams  have  been  discovered  m 
the  extreme  northern  portion.  Thousands  of  tons  of  ore 
from  this  region  are  sent  by  rail  to  Lulea,  a  city  in 
northern  Sweden,  and  from  there  by  steamer  to  many  dif- 
ferent countries  in  Europe  and  to  the  United  States. 


Fig.  69.   Fakm  Scene  in  Norway 


SWEDEX  AND  HER  FORESTS 


169 


The  great  forests  of  birch,  pine,  spruce,  and  other  trees 
cover  nearly  all  the  rest  of  the  country,  from  the  mountains 
on  the  west  to  the  Baltic  Sea  on  the  east.  In  the  winter 
the  woods  in  the  northern  portion  are  half  buried  in  snow, 
and  in  their  depths  wander  bears,  Avolves,  elk,  and  deer. 
In  traveling  through  the  country  on  the  hard-beaten  roads 
of  snow  we  meet  farmers  driving  to  market  with  their 
sleds  full  of  game,  or  sledges  filled  with  merry  passengers 
wrapped  warmly  in  furs  and  drawn  by  small  but  speedy 
horses.  We  may  come 
upon  an  endless  line 
of  timber  sledges,  or 
a  woodsman  on  his 
long  snowshoes,  or,  in 
the  forest  depths,  a 
charcoal  burner,  for 
these  are  all  common 
sights  in  this  region. 

If  you  will  look  at 
the   map    of    Sweden 

you  will  see  that  nearly  all  the  rivers  flow  southeastward 
through  the  forest  region,  from  the  mountains  to  the  sea. 
Every  river  is  a  lumber  stream,  and  many  have  sawmills 
along  their  banks  or  near  their  mouths.  There  are  be- 
tween fifteen  hundred  and  two  thousand  sawmills  in 
Sweden,  some  of  them  small  ones  while  others  are  among 
the  largest  in  Europe,  and  there  are  thousands  of  men  at 
work  in  them.  The  lumber  is  made  into  boards,  beams, 
masts,  staves,  window  sashes,  doors,  sleepers,  props  to  be 
used  in  mines,  paper  and  paper  pulp,  matches,  charcoal, 
and  many   other  articles.    Not  many  of    these   products 


Fig.  70.    Some  of  the  People  of  Sweden 
GO  TO  Church  in  Boats 


170  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 

remain  in  Sweden.  Her  forest  exports  are  worth  more  than 
all  the  other  goods  sent  out  of  the  country,  and  are  of  more 
value  than  the  forest  exports  of  most  of  the  other  countries 
of  the  world.  The  great  importance  of  the  industry  is 
largely  due  to  the  wide  extent  of  the  forests  and  to  the 
fine  quality  of  the  timber,  resulting  from  its  slow  growth. 
The  great  output  is  made  possible  by  the  numberless 
watercourses,  on  which  the  logs  may  be  floated  to  the  saw- 
mills ;  by  the  snow  and  the  frozen  lakes  and  marshes,  which 
make  winter  transportation  easy ;  by  the  many  good  harbors 
on  the  coast ;  and  by  the  convenient  situation  of  Sweden 
for  communication  with  other  nations. 

Of  all  the  articles  manufactured  in  Sweden  from  wood, 
the  most  important  are  paper,  paper  pulp,  and  matches. 
Great  Britain  is  Sweden's  best  customer,  not  only  for  these 
products  but  for  others,  and  in  some  years  she  takes  more 
than  half  of  all  the  Swedish  exports.  Nearly  all  the  butter, 
much  of  the  timber,  and  great  quantities  of  paper,  wood 
pulp,  matches,  and  iron  and  steel  products  are  sent  from 
Gothenburg  direct,  or  by  way  of  Copenhagen,  to  English 
ports.  The  vessels  bring  back  coal  and  coke  for  the  facto- 
ries, cotton  and  woolen  yarn  for  the  mills,  besides  cloth, 
oils,  leather,  and  other  manufactures.  Other  nations  of 
Europe  light  their  hres  with  Swedish  matches,  build  their 
houses  with  Swedish  timber,  make  their  machinery  from 
Swedish  iron,  and  spread  their  bread  with  Swedish  butter. 
The  people  of  the  United  States  are  especially  interested 
in  the  forests  of  Sweden,  for  we  pay  her  each  year  many 
thousand  dollars  for  matches  alone,  and  an  amount  several 
times  larger  for  the  large  quantities  of  wood  pulp  which 
we  buy  from  her  to  supply  our  numerous  paper  mills. 


SWEDEN  AND  HER  FORESTS 


171 


s 

"»'•' 

^y 

,i*M>.-.J 

J 

k 

m 

_, 

iSu 

f 


I' I 


'H 


^--f-r 


One  of  the  places  in  Sweden  we  should  like  to  visit 
before  leaving  the  country  is  Jonkoping,  perhaps  the  most 
beautifully  situated  of  all  Swedish  towns.  It  lies  at  the 
southern  end  of  Lake  Wetter  and  is  surrounded  by  hills 
on  the  east,  west,  and  south.  But  beautiful  as  the  scenery 
is,  it  is  not  that  which  has  brought  us  here.  No ;  it  is  those 
large  buildings  in  the 
western  part  of  the  town 
where  for  more  than 
sixty  years  matches  have 
been  manufactured.  A 
Swede  invented  fric- 
tion matches,  and  Johan 
Lundstrom,  whose  name 
is  still  seen  on  match 
boxes,  started  and  built 
up  an  immense  indus- 
try in  Jonkoping,  where 
they  have  been  manu- 
factured ever  since  in 
such  great  quantities 
that  the  town  has  become 
famous  for  the  product. 

Most  of  the  factories  in  Sweden  manufacture  safety 
matches,  which  can  be  lighted  only  on  the  box  in  which 
they  are  put  up.  The  matches  are  made  chiefly  of  aspen 
wood,  much  of  which  has  to  be  imported  from  Finland  and 
Russia,  for  the  supply  in  Sweden  has  diminished  rapidly 
in  recent  years. 

When  the  manufacture  of  matches  first  began,  each 
little  stick  was  made  and  dipped  by  hand.    Now,  however, 


©  Underwood  &  Underwood 

Tig.  71.  Principal  Street  in  Jonkoping 


172 


IXDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  —  EUROPE 


machines  do  the  whole  work.  And  such  wonderful  machines ! 
One  of  them  takes  blocks  of  w^ood  as  wide  as  a  match  is 
long  and  two  inches  thick,  cuts  the  blocks  into  splints  the 
size  of  a  match,  forms  the  head,  puts  the  finished  matches 
into  boxes  which  are  fed  into  the  machine,  and  thus  turns 
out,  untouched  by  the  human  hand,  forty  to  fifty  thousand 
boxes  a  day. 

There  are  more  than  twenty  factories  in  Sweden,  now 
united  into  one  corporation,  which  turn  out  annually  im- 
mense quantities  of 
matches.  Besides  the 
great  number  con- 
sumed in  the  coun- 
try, from  twenty  to 
twenty-five  thousand 
tons  are  exported 
annually.  Though 
this  seems  a  great 
amount,  the  United 
States  manufactures 
many  more.  It  is 
estimated  that  the 
factories  of  our  country  produce  from  two  hundred  seventy- 
five  to  three  hundred  billion  matches  every  year.  If  these 
were  fastened  too'ether  end  to  end  the  line  thus  made 
would  be  long  enough  to  stretch  to  the  moon  and  back 
nearly  twenty  times. 

Some  one  interested  in  problems  has  figured  that  the 
nations  of  the  civilized  world  use  about  three  million 
matches  every  minute,  and  that  one  half  of  this  immense 
quantity  is  consumed  in  the  United  States. 


Fig.  72. 


''     r:,il'  I  \'. 1  \  [   iiJerwood 

Farming  neak  Joxkopixg 


SWEDEN  AND  HER  FORESTS 


173 


TOPICS  FOR  STUDY 


1.  The  trip  from  Helsiugfors. 

2.  Description  of  Stockholm. 

3.  A  journey  to  northern  Sweden. 

4.  The  forests  of  Sweden. 

5.  Lumbering  in  Sweden. 

6.  Exjiorts  of  the  country. 

7.  Jonkoping  and  the  manufacture  of  matches. 

8.  World  product  of  matches. 


11 

1.  Sketch  Sweden,  showing  the  mountain,  forest,  and  plain  region. 
Show  the  direction  of  the  rivers.    Indicate  the  cities  mentioned. 

2.  Write  a  list  of  the  reasons  why  Sweden  ranks  so  high  in  the 
lumber  industry. 

3.  Trace  the  route  of  a  vessel  which  is  bringing  Swedish  imu 
to  Philadelphia. 

4.  Load  a  vessel  with  Swedish  products  for  England.  Name  tlie 
products  carried,  the  waters  sailed  on,  the  shipping  and  receiving- 
ports,  and  the  return  cargo. 

5.  Make  a  list  of  the  addresses  which  you  can  find  on  match 
boxes.    Locate  these  places. 

Ill 

Be  able  to  sjiell  and  pronounce  the  following  names.  Locate  each 
place  and  tell  what  was  said  of  it  in  this  and  in  any  previous  chapter. 
Add  other  facts  if  possible. 


Finland 
Great  Britain 
Norway 
Russia 
United  States 

Berlin 


Copenhagen 

Dannemora 

Edinburgh 

(iothenburg 

Helsingfors 

Jonkoping 

LuVa 


Stockholm 
Venice 

Baltic  Sea 
Gulf  of  Finland 
Lake  Malar 
Lake  Wetter 


CHAPTER  XI 
GERMANY  AND  THE  WURLD  WAR 

Our  next  trip  will  talvo  us  into  Germany,  a  country  of 
Central  Europe  bordering  on  the  North  and  Baltic  seas. 
It  is  less  than  twice  the  size  of  Colorado,  while  its  popu- 
lation is  nearly  two  thirds  that  of  the  entire  United  States. 

For  many  years  Germany  was  a  strong  military  country. 
As  the  years  passed,  and  her  military  and  industrial  strength 
grew  greater  and  greater,  her  ruler  and  her  ''  war-lords " 
became  more  and  more  obsessed  with  the  idea  of  dominat- 
ing the  world  ;  of  creating  a  Germany  that  should  extend 
through  middle  Europe  southward  into  western  Asia  and 
eastward  across  the  dominions  of  the  Czar  of  Russia  to 
the  Pacific  ;  of  absorbing  the  little  countries  to  the  north ; 
of  conquering  France,  then  England ;  and,  in  due  time,  of 
reaching  across  the  Atlantic  even  to  our  own  United  States 
and  to  the  countries  south  of  us.  Such  were  the  plans  of 
the  kaiser  of  Germany  and  his  advisers,  and  for  years 
previous  to  1914  everything  within  the  mighty  empire  was 
directed  to  their  accomplishment. 

In  1914  Germany  was  ready,  and  the  great  war  began. 
Never  in  the  history  of  the  world  had  there  ever  been 
such  a  war.  It  was  not  a  struggle  between  two  conn- 
tries  or  between  two  continents,  even.  Nearly  the  whole 
world  took  part  in  the  conflict.  At  iirst  the  people  of  the 
United  States  were  divided  in  their  opinion  as  to  whether 

174 


GERMANY  AND  THE  WORLD  WAR      175 

or  not  our  country  should  join  the  AlHed  Nations  agamst 
Germany  and  the  other  Central  Powers,  and  it  was  nearly 
three  years  after  the  beginning  of  the  fighting  before  we 
entered  the  war.  Our  strength,  our  resources,  and  our 
brave  boys,  added  to  those  of  France,  England,  and  the 
other  Allies,  proved  too  much  for  the  foe,  and  from  the  time 
we  entered  the  conflict  the  German  cause  was  lost,  and  the 
world  freed  from  fear  of  German  rule. 

The  war  had  man}-  results.  Some  of  them  were  awful 
ones.  Millions  of  men  were  killed  ;  hundreds  of  towns  and 
cities  were  laid  completely  in  ruins;  thousands  and  thousands 
of  people  lost  homes,  household  goods,  farms,  cattle,  every- 
thing in  the  world  that  they  possessed.  In  the  fighting- 
zone,  mills,  factories,  mines,  machinery,  and  industries  ol 
all  kinds  were  laid  in  ruins.  Wonderful  art  treasures  and 
ancient  buildings  were  forever  lost  to  the  world.  Forests  of 
splendid  trees,  hundreds  of  years  old,  were  laid  waste  in 
a  few  weeks.  What  had  taken  man  and  nature  centuries 
to  accomplish  was  destroyed  in  four  years. 

Some  of  the  results  of  the  war  were  as  beneficial  as 
others  were  harmful.  In  some  of  the  countries  of  Europe 
and  other  continents  the  people  had  few  rights  and  privi- 
leges. They  had  been  oppressed  for  centuries  and  governed 
by  autocratic  rulers  of  other  races  or  religions  who  hated 
them  and  forbade  them  to  use  their  native  language,  to 
have  schools  with  teachers  of  their  own  race,  to  make  their 
laws,  or  to  choose  their  officials. 

The  war  changed  many  of  these  conditions.  New  nations, 
people  happy  in  a  new  freedom,  and  new  boundary  lines 
drawn  by  a  higher  law  than  greed  and  selfishness  were  some 
of  the  results.    To  guard  the  liberties  of  peoples,  to  help 


176  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 

to  prevent  wars  and  all  their  disastrous  results,  there  was 
planned  the  greatest  organization  the  world  has  ever  jet 
known,  the  League  of  Nations,  powerful,  just,  far-seeing, 
ready  to  defend  the  right,  to  repress  the  wrong,  and  to  see 
that  law  and  order,  justice  and  mercy,  should  prevail. 

The  industrial  changes  brought  about  by  the  war  have 
been  many  and  great.  Before  1914  Germany  controlled 
the  world's  markets  in  certain  important  products.  Chief 
among  these  were  optical  and  surgical  instruments  which 
required  a  high  degree  of  skill  in  the  making,  chemical 
manufactures,  such  as  dyes  and  drugs,  and  potash  and 
other  substances  which  help  in  making  the  world's  ferti- 
lizers, without  which  large  crops  cannot  be  produced. 

Soon  after  tlie  war  commenced  it  became  impossible  to 
obtain  these  and  other  products  from  Germany.  Therefore 
other  nations  began  experiments  in  their  manufacture.  The 
results  of  these  experiments  in  building  up  new  industries 
have  been  very  successful.  In  the  future  neither  Germany 
nor  any  other  country  will  hold  a  monopoly  on  those 
products  which  are  essential  to  the  welfare  of  the  world. 

For  many  years  few  people  from  the  United  States  or 
from  other  countries  will  care  to  travel  in  Germany  for 
pleasure.  We  should  be  giving  to  that  country,  however,  a 
great  advantage  over  us  if  we  knew  nothing  of  her  people, 
her  land,  and  her  industries.  It  is  as  important  now  as  it 
ever  has  been  that  we  have  considerable  knowledge  of  the 
country  of  Germany. 

For  many  years  Germany  had  been  an  important  country 
in  the  production  of  iron  and  coal.  She  ranked  first  among 
European  nations  in  her  iron  output  and  next  to  Great 
Britain  in  the  amount  of  coal  mined.    It  was  largely  due 


GERMAXY  AND   THP:  WORLD  WAR  177 

to  these  two  products  that  she  was  able  to  build  up  her 
manufacturing  industries  and  prepare  herself  for  the  great 
war.  A  large  part  of  the  iron  ore  was  mined  in  Alsace- 
Lorraine.  Now  that  this  territory  has  been  given  back  to 
France,  Germany  will  no  longer  hold  first  rank  in  Europe 
in  iron  production. 

When  the  German  armies  retreated  from  northern  France 
they  wrecked  the  coal  mines  of  the  region,  destroying  and 
carry mg  away  the  machinery  and  flooding  the  mines.  ]Many 
years  must  pass  before  some  of  these  mines  can  be  worked  : 
some  of  them  are  permanently  damaged.  One  of  Germany's 
richest  coal  fields  lay  in  the  valley  of  the  Saar  River,  a 
branch  of  the  Moselle.  To  make  up  partially  for  the  great 
industrial  loss  to  France,  the  treaty  of  peace  at  the  close  of 
the  World  War  provided  that  she  should  be  given  control 
of  the  Saar  valley  coal  mines  in  western  Germany.  At  the 
end  of  fifteen  years  from  the  signing  of  the  treaty  the  people 
there  are  to  be  given  tlie  opportunity  of  deciding  to  which 
nation  they  desire  to  belong. 

Although  Germany  has  many  large  cities  and  important 
manufactures,  a  fourth  of  all  her  many  million  people 
depend  on  agriculture  for  a  living.  Though  most  of  the 
farms  are  small  ones,  the  owners  cultivate  them  so  care- 
fully that  there  are  immense  quantities  of  grain,  sugar 
beets,  grapes,  potatoes,  and  other  products  raised  on  them. 
In  ordinary  years  Germany  raises  more  potatoes  than  any 
other  country  in  the  world.  They  form  one  of  the  chief 
foods  of  the  people  and,  with  coarse  rye  bread  and  butter- 
milk or  sour  milk,  are  eaten  daily  by  the  peasants. 

If  we  could  look  down  upon  Germany  from  an  airsliip, 
we  should  see  acres  and  acres  of  sugar  beets  W:U  ing  their 


178 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  —  EUROPE 


green  tops  in  the  sunshine,  for  Germany  is  one  of  the 
leadmg  countries  of  the  Avorld  in  the  production  of  beet 
suo-ar.  We  should  also  see  from  our  airship  the  browner 
green  of  the  hopvines  twining  around  tall  poles  twice  as 
hicrh  as  your  head.  Thousands  of  acres  of  hops  are  raised  to 
be  used  in  the  making  of  beer,  which  German  people  drink 

in  large  quantities. 
Flying  low  in  our 
airship  over  the  val- 
ley of  the  Rhine 
River  we  should  see 
below  us  the  ter- 
raced vmeyards  the 
fruit  from  which 
yields  the  famous 
Rhine  wines.  Infer- 
tile meadows  and 
on  green  hillsides 
we  should  catch  a 
sight  of  many  sleek- 
looking  cattle,  for 
Germany  is  an 
important  dairying 
country. 
Agriculture  in  a  great  variety  of  forms  is  one  of  the 
leading  industries  of  the  country,  yet  Germany  is  better 
known  as  an  important  manufacturing  and  commercial 
nation.  She  is  noted  not  only  for  the  great  amount  but  for 
the  variety  of  her  productions,  and  is  famous  also  for  the 
science  and  skill  displayed  in  their  manufacture  and  use. 
The  making  of  indigo  is  an  illustration  of  this.  Formerly, 


©  Underwood  &  I'liderwoci. 

Fig.  73.     In    Germany    wk    can    see    many 
Acres  of  Sugar  Bicets 


GERMANY  AXD  THE  WORLD  WAR 


179 


and  to  a  slight  extent  at  the  present  time,  the  indigo  plant 
yielded  the  dye,  large  quantities  of  which  were  imported  at 
great  expense.  To-day  an  artificial  product,  discovered  in 
coal  tar  by  a  German  chemist  and  manufactured  in  great 
quantities,  is  cheaper  than  the  natural  product  of  the  uidigo 
plant.  Its  use  saves  the  cost  of  importation,  and  its  sale  to 
other  countries  increases  the  value  of  Germany's  exports. 


i 

^^S^^B^^HBiHw!' 

oH^^^LJi 

^^^^^^jg'             «BI 

■-- 

-~^^^H^^H 

Fig.  74.    "Thousands  of  Acres  of  Hops  are  raised" 

This  is  only  one  of  the  many  brilliant  dyes  which  scientific 
men  have  discovered  can  be  made  from  the  dirty-looking  coal 
tar.  Great  quantities  of  fertilizers,  artificial  camphor,  drugs, 
powders,  perfumes,  and  other  chemicals  are  also  made  here. 
Germany  is  noted  for  the  number  of  expert  chemists  con- 
nected with  her  manufacturing  industries,  and  chemicals 
rank  among  the  most  important  manufactures  of  the  country. 

The  discovery  of  a  method  by  which  beet  sugar  could 
be  manufactured  cheaply  enough  to  make  it  commercially 


180  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 

profitable  was  the  work  of  a  German  chemist.  By  pains- 
taking experiments  beets  have  been  developed  which  yield 
several  times  the  amount  of  sugar  formerly  obtained  from 
the  vegetable. 

To  feed  and  clothe  her  millions  of  people  Germany  must 
import  many  million  dollars'  worth  of  raw  material ;  to 
furnish  occupation  for  them  she  must  manufacture ;  and 
to  pay  for  her  imports  she  must  export  these  manufactured 
goods.  The  growth  of  the  nation,  therefore,  depends  to  a 
great  extent  upon  her  commerce. 

Let  us  see  if  the  situation  of  Germany  favors  this  com- 
mercial development.  It  occupies  a  central  position  in 
Europe,  with  other  nations  on  every  side,  and  her  land 
routes,  therefore,  are  short  ones.  This  in  itself  is  favorable, 
for  land  routes  are  usually  expensive  for  transportation  pur- 
poses. If  we  measured  her  entire  boundary  line,  we  should 
find  it  to  be  about  four  thousand  miles.  Rather  more  than 
a  fourth  of  this  borders  on  the  sea  —  about  eight  hundred 
miles  on  the  Baltic  and  nearly  three  hundred  miles  on  the 
North  Sea.  The  Baltic,  being  farther  from  the  ocean  and 
separated  from  it  by  the  Scandinavian  peninsula,  is  colder 
than  the  North  Sea,  and  the  ports  on  it  are  closed  b}'  ice  for 
a  part  of  the  year,  while  the  North  Sea  ports  remain  open. 

The  Kiel  Canal,  w^hich  connects  the  waters  of  the  two 
seas,  extends  from  the  city  of  Kiel  to  the  mouth  of  the 
Elbe  River,  a  distance  of  sixty-one  miles.  It  was  built  by 
Germany  largely  for  military  and  naval  purposes,  in  order 
that  she  might  move  her  war  vessels  at  will  in  and  out  of 
the  Baltic  Sea.  Since  the  Peace  Treaty  was  signed  in  1919, 
at  the  close  of  the  World  War,  the  Kiel  Canal  has  been 
open  to  vessels  of  all  nations. 


GERMANY  AND  THE  WORLD  WAR 


181 


Because  of  tlie  disadvantages  connected  with  the  carry- 
ing on  of  commerce  on  the  Baltic  Sea,  most  of  Germany's 
trade  is  carried  on  tln^ough  the  North  Sea  ports.  This 
traffic  is  greatly  increased  by  the  position  of  these  cities 
opposite  the  great  markets  of  England,  and  also  by  the 
surface  and  drauiage  conditions  of  the  country,  for  however 
favorably  situated  a 
seaport  may  be,  its 
importance  depends 
largely  upon  its  means 
of  commmiication  with 
the  country  which  fur- 
nishes the  goods  for 
export. 

If  from  our  airship 
we  could  view  at  once 
the  whole  area  of  Ger- 
many, we  should  see 
four  long,  navigable 
rivers,  which  rise  in 
or  break  through  the 
mountains  in  the  south- 
ern part  of  the  country 
and  flow  northward  across  the  great  German  plain  to  the 
North  and  Baltic  seas.  These  are  tlie  Rhine,  the  Weser, 
the  Elbe,  and  the  Oder.  A  fine  canal  system  connects  these 
rivers  with  one  another,  and  with  the  Seine,  the  Rhone,  and 
the  Danube,  which  flow  to  the  west  and  south.  By  means 
of  this  system  of  waterways  Germany  has  been  able  to  draw 
her  commercial  products  from  the  fields  and  factories  of 
many  countries  to  the  east  and  Avest  and  south. 


^      : 

Ikk  a^''*^-'-'-  rfliiiP 

Li 

V 

j^»^* 

g^^^ 
^^^ 

1 

^gSHKffl^'' 

r- 

"'■"IH 

{'  • 

^1  i 

©  I'nderwoocl  &  I'nderwood 

Fu;.  75.   The  Kiel  Canal  extends  kkom 
Kiel  to  the  Mouth  of  the  Elbe  River 


182 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 


At  or  near  the  mouth  of  each  of  the  great  northward- 
flowing  rivers  is  a  large  commercial  port.  Rotterdam  in 
Holland  is  located  near  the  mouth  of  the  Rhine,  Bremen  on 
the  Weser,  Hamburg  on  the  Elbe,  and  Stettin  on  the  Oder. 


{^jj  limierwrood  &  Underwood 

Fig.  76.   The  Rhine  River  is  Faaious  for  its  Castles 
AND  Vineyards 

Through  each  of  these  ports  pass  not  only  the  products  of 
the  river  basin  which  it  controls  but  those  also  which  have 
come  by  canal  and  railroad  from  other  sections. 

The  Rhine  River,  famous  for  its  castles  and  vine- 
yards, is  the  most  westerly  and  the  most  important  of 
these  commercial  streams.     A   ride   through  this   section 


GERMANY  AND  THE  WORLD  WAR  183 

of  Germany  and  along  the  Ruhr  River  would  remind  us  of 
a  visit  to  Pittsburgh,  for  it  is  as  full  of  foundries,  rolling 
mills,  and  steel  works,  with  their  tall  chhnneys  and  roaring 
furnaces,  as  is  the  "  Smoky  City  "  of  Pennsylvania.  In  this 
district  is  Essen,  a  city  famous  for  its  iron  and  steel  manu- 
factures. Before  and  during  the  World  War  it  was  a 
most  important  center  for  the  manufacture  of  munitions. 
In  Elberfeld,  a  city  larger  than  New  Orleans,  we  should 
see  many  large  cotton  mills  and  factories.  At  Krefeld, 
which  is  about  the  size  of  Lowell,  ]M  as  sac  hu  setts,  there  are 
many  factories  in  which  are  made  silk  goods  of  all  kinds 
and  descriptions. 

In  ordinary  years  many  boats  descend  the  Rhine  from 
these  and  other  busy  manufacturing  cities,  carrying  all 
kinds  of  silk,  cotton,  woolen  and  linen  goods,  cloth,  yarn, 
ribbons,  braids,  laces,  trimmings,  and  embroideries.  Others 
are  heavily  loaded  with  coal  and  iron  and  with  a  variety  of 
iron  manufactures  —  cutlery,  hardware,  machinery,  needles 
and  pins,  and  guns  and  rifles. 

Besides  these  products- the  Rhine  boats  carry  many  goods 
of  the  finest  workmanship,  among  which  are  musical,  optical, 
and  surgical  instruments,  and  thermometers  such  as  phy- 
sicians use  to  tell  the  temperature  of  a  patient.  These  have 
come  from  the  great  factories  and  splendidly  equipped  labora- 
tories, and  also  from  the  little  houses  of  the  peasants,  where 
only  one  or  two  workmen  find  employment,  for  many  of 
the  products  of  Germany,  as  well  as  of  other  European 
countries,  are  made  in  the  homes  of  the  people  rather  than 
ill  large  manufacturing  plants. 

The  center  of  the  chemical  industry  for  which  Germany 
is  famous  lies  on  the  upper  Rhine  between  Frankfort  and 


184  IXDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 

Mannheim.  ^Millions  of  dollars"  worth  of  fertilizers,  drugs, 
acids,  and  powders  for  use  in  manufacture  and  medicine 
are  made  in  this  section  of  the  country. 

The  busy  peasants  from  the  small,  well-kept  farms  of 
the  upper  Rhine  valley  send  great  quantities  of  wheat, 
barley,  rye,  potatoes,  grapes,  and  tobacco  down  the  river 
in  barges.  Much  of  the  tobacco  will  go  by  canal  to  the 
Weser  River  and  thence  to  Bremen,  which  is  one  of  the 
largest  tobacco  ports  of  the  world. 

In  a  trip  down  the  Rhine  we  should  notice  that  all  the 
more  important  cities  along  the  river,  Ruhrort,  Diisseldorf, 
Cologne,  Mainz,  jNIannheim,  and  others,  have  the  best 
modern  conveniences  for  carrying  on  commerce  —  quays, 
sheds,  warehouses,  granaries,  petroleum  tanks,  cranes,  and 
other  devices  for  handling  heavy  goods. 

The  mouth  of  the  Rhine  River  is  in  the  Netherlands, 
and  the  great  city  of  Rotterdam,  situated  near  the  coast 
and  connected  with  the  sea  by  a  ship  canal,  is  the  natural 
port  of  the  whole  valley.  By  means  of  canals,  which  cut 
the  city  into  many  islands  and  stretch  off  through  the  low 
plains,  we  can  reach  any  part  of  the  Netherlands,  for  the 
network  of  waterways  extends  to  all  parts  of  the  small 
kingdom.  On  them  one  can  see  every  imaginable  variety 
of  canal  boat  and  barge,  in  such  numbers  and  so  close 
together  that  they  touch  one  another  for  long  distances 
along  the  sides  of  the  canal.  Every  boat  is  named,  many 
of  them  after  the  dearly  loved  Queen  Wilhelmina. 

Rotterdam  is  not  a  beautiful  city,  nor  is  it  thoroughly 
Dutch,  for  it  carries  on  commerce  with  too  many  countries 
of  the  world  and  is  visited  daily  by  too  many  foreigners 
for  it  to  keep  its  Dutch  characteristics.    If  you  do  not  like 


GERMANY  AND  THE  WORLD  WAR  185 

sailors  and  sailor  ways  do  not  go  to  Rotterdam,  for  they 

are  everywhere,  and  hundreds  of  ships  lie  at  the  docks, 

are  towed  or  poled  slowly  through  the  dark  water  of  the 

canals  between  the  rows  of  boats  on  either  side,   or  sail 

proudly  out  of  the  harbor  toward  distant  lands.     Those 

bound   for  the    United    States   carry  great   quantities    of 

hides  and  skins,  spices  from  the  Dutch  colonies  in  the  East 

Indies,  cheese,  rice,  and  many  other  things.    Among  the 

important  exports  are  bulbs,  seeds,  roots,  and  plants,  for 

the  Netherlands  is  famous  for  these  products. 

Thomas  Hood  has  well  described  Rotterdam  in  a  rather 

humorous  poem  written  to  a  friend  in  England.    It  runs 

as  follows: 

Before  me  lie  dark  waters 

In  broad  canals  and  deep, 
Whereon  the  silver  moonbeams 

Sleep,  restless  in  their  sleep ; 
A  sort  of  vulgar  Venice 

Reminds  me  where  I  am  ; 
Yes,  yes,  you  are  in  England, 

And  I'm  in  Rotterdam. 

Tall  houses  with  quaint  gables, 

Where  frequent  windows  shine. 
And  quays  that  lead  to  bridges, 

And  trees  in  formal  line, 
And  masts  of  spicy  vessels 

From  western  Surinam, 
All  tell  me  you  're  in  England, 

But  I'm  in  Rotterdam. 

Before  the  war  some  of  Germany's  strongest  fortifica- 
tions lay  along  the  Rhine  River  and  in  its  valley.  By  the 
terms  of  the  Peace  Treaty  Germany  is  not  allowed  to  main- 
tain the  forts  in    this  area  or  to  send  any  armed  forces 


186 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES —  EUROPE 


there.  It  is  intended  that  this  unarmed  corridor  of  the 
Rhine  valley  shall  help  to  protect  France  from  any  future 
invasion  of  the  Germans. 

The  next  important  stream  east  of  the  Rhine  is  the 
Weser,  with  Bremen,  the  second  largest  port  of  Germany, 
situated  about  fifty  miles  from  its  mouth.    The  part  of  the 

city  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  river  is  very  old  ; 
as  we  wander  thi'^ugh 
the  narrow,  crooked 
streets  lined  with  the 
quaint  old  houses  of 
the  Middle  Ages,  and 
visit  the  ancient  cathe- 
dral and  the  old  council 
house  with  its  famous 
wine  cellars,  we  feel  as 
if  we  must  be  separated 
by  hundreds  of  j^ears 
and  hundreds  of  miles 
from  the  newer  part  of 
the  city,  which  rises 
from  the  opposite  bank 
of  the  Weser  with  its  broad,  straight  streets,  fine  busmess 
blocks,  lovely  parks,  and  attractive  gardens. 

The  docks  at  Bremen  extend  along  the  banks  of  the 
Weser  River.  The  water  front  is  usually  crowded  with 
vessels,  from  many  lands  in  different  parts  of  the  world. 
They  are  anchored  in  the  harbor,  are  loading  at  the  docks, 
and  are  departing  on  long  voyages  to  far  distant  countries. 
In   a  single   year  more  than   two   thousand  vessels  have 


)  Underwood  &  Underwood 

Fig.  77.    German  Emigrants 


GERMANY  AND  THE  WORLD  WAR  187 

arrived  at  this  busy  port  of  Germany.  From  Bremen,  also, 
have  sailed  more  than  half  of  all  the  emigrants  who  have 
left  the  Fatherland  to  seek  their  fortunes  in  other  parts 
of  the  vi^orld. 

As  our  airship  floats  slowly  eastward  we  find  ourselves 
above  a  great  river  as  crowded  with  boats  and  barges  as 
the  Rhine.  This  is  the  Elbe,  one  of  the  most  important 
rivers  of  Germany,  for  on  it  goods  can  be  carried  entirely 
across  that  country,  and  thence,  by  means  of  the  JNIoldau 
River,  southward  beyond  the  German  border  into  the  new 
country  of  Czechoslovakia.  Vessels  called  express  trans- 
ports make  the  trip  of  nearly  four  hundred  miles  from 
Hamburg  to  the  frontier  in  five  or  six  days  and  the  return 
trip  down  the  river  in  about  half  of  that  time. 

Canals  connect  the  Elbe  with  the  Weser  and  Rhine  on 
the  one  side  and  with  the  Oder  and  Vistula  on  the  other. 
(Jne  of  these,  on  which  much  of  the  great  trade  between 
Hamburg  and  the  capital  city  of  Berlin  is  carried  on, 
follows  the  course  of  the  vSpree  River  for  some  miles  and 
then  joins  the  Oder,  thus  connecting  the  waters  of  the 
North  and  Baltic  seas. 

Hamburg  is  the  largest  seaport  on  the  continent  of 
Europe.  It  is  situated  at  the  head  of  ocean  navigation, 
sixty-five  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  Elbe  River.  There 
are  larger  and  finer  docks,  quays,  warehouses,  granaries, 
and  elevators  crowded  on  the  water  front  than  we  have 
seen  in  any  other  city  of  Germany,  and  the  machinery 
for  loading  and  unloading  vessels  probably  equals  that  in 
use  in  any  seaport  of  the  world. 

Large  quantities  of  foodstuffs  and  much  of  the  raw 
material  for  manufacture  enter  Germany  through  the  port 


188  mDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 

of  Hamburg,  for  it  is  admirably  situated  at  the  head  of 
the  North  Sea,  across  the  water  from  the  great  markets 
of  England,  and  near  the  entrance  to  the  Kiel  Canal,  which 
connects  it  with  the  Baltic  Sea.  By  the  aid  of  this  canal, 
of  the  Elbe  River  and  its  connections,  and  of  the  numerous 
railroads  which  enter  the  city,  Hamburg  has  become  a  great 
distributing  center,  scattering  the  products  received  by  its 
ocean  commerce  all  over  Germany  and  into  many  parts  of 
Central  Europe. 

Much  of  the  trade  of  the  great  city  of  Berlin  is  carried 
on  through  the  same  port,  and  goods  are  conveyed  by 
rail,  by  canals,  and  by  the  Havel  and  Spree  rivers  to  the 
capital  city,  from  which  they  find  their  way  by  rail,  river, 
and  canal  to  waterways  and  cities  farther  east  and  south. 

A  list  of  the  exports  which  Hamburg  has  sent  to  other 
countries  would  include  nearly  everything  which  has  been 
produced  or  manufactured  in  Germany,  as  well  as  imports 
from  other  countries.  Millions  of  dollars'  worth  of  these 
goods  are  shipped  annually  from  this  busy  port.  Vessels 
bound  for  different  parts  of  the  world  carry  hides  and  skins, 
oils,  seeds,  ore,  wood  pulp  and  paper  stock,  toys,  chemi- 
cals, dyes  and  drugs,  India  rubber,  fertilizers,  cloth,  laces, 
embroideries,  and  gloves.  From  different  parts  of  the  Elbe 
valley,  boats  are  continually  arriving  at  Hamburg  bringing 
mineral  products,  silver,  lead,  copper,  tin,  nickel,  and  iron 
from  Erzgebirge,  or  ore  mountains,  on  the  southern  frontier. 
Other  boats  bring  all  kinds  of  manufactures  from  Saxony, 
the  most  densely  populated  and  the  chief  manufacturing 
section  of  Germany — china  from  Dresden  ;  books,  furs,  and 
skins  from  Leipzig ;  and  all  kinds  of  cotton  goods  from 
Chemnitz.   There  are  also  cargoes  of  toys,  dolls,  trimmings. 


GERMAXY  AND  THE  WORLD  WAR 


189 


embroideries,  laces,  artificial  flowers,  tobacco,  thousands  and 
thousands  of  post  cards,  real  and  artificial  silk,  seeds,  salts, 
and  so  many  other  things  that  if  we  were  to  attempt  to 
name  all  of  them  the  chapter  would  be  a  very  long  one. 
As  our  airship  takes  us  still  farther  east,  we  pass  over 
the  Oder  River,  with  Stettin,  a  city  the  size  of  St.  Paul, 
Minnesota,  at  its  mouth. 
Stettin  has  one  of  the 
finest  harbors  in  Europe 
and  is  connected  by  the 
Oder  River  and  numer- 
ous canals  with  the  Elbe 
on  the  west  and  the 
Vistula  on  the  east.  It 
is  therefore  a  great  trad- 
ing center  for  those  south- 
ern countries  which  can 
be  reached  by  these  water 
connections  and  for  cen- 
tral and  eastern  Ger- 
many. Both  of  these 
reocions  include  fine  agri- 
cultural  areas,  and  thou- 
sands of  tons  of  freiglit 

come  to  Stettin  by  way  of  Berlin,  and  from  Czechoslovakia. 
Chief  among  these  exports  is  beet  sugar,  and  following 
this  in  importance  are  flour  and  starch,  products  of  the 
great  potato  crop  in  which  Germany  is  one  of  the  leading 
countries  of  the  world.  The  composition  of  the  soil  in 
this  part  of  Germany  favors  the  manufacture  of  cement, 
of  which  large  quantities  have  been  exported. 


I  Underwood  &  Underwood 

Fig.  78.    We  pass  the  Oder  River, 
AviTH  Stettin  at  its  Modth 


190  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 

If  in  our  tour  through  Germany,  instead  of  looking 
down  from  our  airship  at  the  traffic  on  the  rivers  and 
at  the  great  manufacturing  cities  and  seaports,  we  had 
examined  the  quaint  little  houses  in  the  country  regions 
and  in  the  smaller  towns  and  cities,  we  should  have  seen 
many  of  the  people  engaged  in  an  industry  which  would 
have  interested  us  more  tlian  any  of  those  carried  on  in 
great  factories  or  mills.  You  wonder  how  any  industry 
of  importance  can  be  carried  on  in  small  houses  of  two  or 
three  rooms,  such  as  many  of  the  peasants  live  in ;  but 
when  thousands  of  families,  —  father,  mother,  and  chil- 
Jveu  —  in  homes  all  over  the  country  are  Avorking  at  the 
same  occupation  they  accomplish  a  great  deal,  even  if  they 
do  not  work  together  in  a  few  large  buildings. 

Thousands  and  thousands  of  the  people  of  Germany  live 
in  the  country  and  depend  for  a  livhig  on  the  products  of 
the  farm  and  on  the  work  which  they  do  in  their  own 
homes  during  their  spare  hours.  JNIany  of  these  peasants 
are  engaged  in  making  toys  —  woolly  dogs,  Teddy  bears, 
Noah's  arks,  tin  soldiers,  coaches,  engines  and  trains,  ducks 
that  float,  dolls  that  cry,  sheep  that  bleat,  and  scores  of 
others.  Many  also  work  on  wooden  articles,  such  as  kitchen 
goods,  boxes,  toothpicks,  frames  for  brushes,  carved  wood, 
and  barrels.  In  their  own  homes,  hundreds  of  families 
are  engaged  in  making  ribbons,  laces,  silks,  and  embi'oid- 
eries,  besides  knitted  and  crocheted  goods.  There  are 
also  glass  workers,  straw  plaiters,  and  glove,  basket,  and 
violin  makers. 

Of  all  these  home  industries  the  making  of  toys  is 
more  interestmg  than  any  other.  jNIany  of  these  come  from 
Sonneberg,  a  quaint  little  town  which  nestles  quietly  in 


GERMANY  AND  THE  WORLD  WAR 


191 


Fig.  79. 


)  Underwood  &  Underwood 

In  One   House  Notiiixg  is  made  but  Dolls" 


the  long  valley  of  the  Thuringian  Mountains,  which  you 
will  find  on  the  map  opposite  page  176.  We  will  plan  our 
visit  so  that  we  may  arrive  in  the  town  on  Saturday,  for 
that  is  the  day  when  the  people  from  the  outlying  districts 


192  IXDUSTRIAL  STUDIES —-EUROPE 

bring  to  ilie  town  the  toys  which  they  have  been  making 
during  the  week,  and  we  shall  find  the  scene  at  the  rail- 
road station  very  interestmg.  Some  of  the  peasants  have 
heavy  loads.  See  that  Avoman  with  a  basket  nearly  a  yard 
deep  fastened  to  her  shoulders,  while  an  oblong  box  a 
yard  wide  rests  on  the  top  of  that.  Both  are  filled  with 
woolly  dogs  which  every  member  of  the  family,  from  the 
aged  grandfather  doA^ni  to  the  seven-year-old  girl,  has  had 
a  hand  in  making. 

The  Thuringian  Mountains,  as  you  see  on  the  map,  lie 
on  the  borders  of  Saxony.  Were  it  not  for  the  difference 
in  the  appearance  of  the  people  and  their  homes  we  might 
think  we  were  in  one  of  the  pleasant  valleys  of  the  Green 
Mountains  of  Vermont.  The  German  mountains,  however, 
are  darker,  for  their  slopes  are  covered  with  deep  forests 
of  evergreen  trees.  The  Germans  take  excellent  care  of 
their  forests.  The  cutting  is  very  carefully  done,  the 
undersfrowth  and  brush  are  removed  so  that  the  forest 
areas  are  as  clean  as  a  picnic  grove,  and  a  tree  is  planted 
for  each  one  felled. 

Sonneberg  is  a  queer  old  to\ATL  of  nearl}-  fifteen  thou- 
sand people,  where  the  tall,  quaint  houses  topple  toward 
one  another  across  the  narrow  streets  leading  from  the 
market  place  up  the  slopes  of  the  mountains.  The  farms 
are  small,  for  most  of  the  land  is  wooded.  The  peasants 
raise  the  rye  for  their  bread,  the  corn  for  their  meal,  and 
the  flax  for  their  linen.  The  men  cut  wood  in  the  forests 
and  work  on  the  farms ;  the  women  spin  and  weave  the 
flax  into  clothmg  for  the  family ;  and  the  children  gather 
berries  or  tend  the  cattle  and  sheep  in  the  mountain  pas- 
tures.   While  the  animals  feed  on  the  green  hillsides,  the 


GERMAXY  AXD  THE  WORLD  WAR      193 

little  keeper  knits  the  warm  woolen  stockings  or  mittens 
which  will  be  needed  when  the  mountains  are  covered 
with  snow  and  the  drifts  lie  deep  in  the  valleys. 

If  you  were  to  walk  throuo-li  the  village  in  tlie  lonsr, 
cold  Avinter  months,  you  would  find  nearly  every  family  — 
mother,  father,  chubby-cheeked  girls,  and  sober-faced  bo^'-g 
—  sittmg  around  the  table  in  the  small,  low  room  working 
on  some  kind  of  toy.  In  one  house  nothing  is  made  but 
dolls.  The  father  makes  the  heads  and  the  mother  cuts 
out  and  stuffs  the  body ;  a  little  girl  only  eight  years  old 
sews  on  the  arms  and  legs ;  her  brother,  eleven  years  old, 
fastens  on  the  hair;  while  the  elder  sister  paints  the  eye- 
brows and  cheeks. 

In  another  house  the  whole  family  are  making  figures 
of  Santa  Claus.  Each  child  has  his  own  particular  part  of 
the  work  to  do  —  perhaps  making  the  legs  or  arms,  per- 
haps painting  the  cheeks  or  fastening  on  the  hair  or  beard 
or  the  white  wool  hat  —  and  he  will  continue  at  this  same 
work  day  after  day  and  year  after  year. 

The  reason  that  the  peasants  work  so  quickly  and  skill- 
fully is  because  their  fingers,  like  those  of  their  ancestors, 
have  been  trained  to  do  just  this  special  work.  But  how 
monotonous  it  must  be  !  In  the  summer  the  work  on  the 
small  farms  makes  some  variation  ;  but  in  the  winter,  when 
the  cold  winds  blow  and  the  snow  is  piled  high  around 
the  little  house,  the  Avorkers  sit  from  early  morning  till 
late  at  night  painting  lips,  fastening  in  eyes,  cutting  out 
bodies,  sewing  on  limbs,  or  doing  some  other  detail,  over 
and  over,  the  whole  day  through. 

We  must  not  leave  "  Toyland  "  without  visiting  its  capi- 
tal, Nuremberg.    Toys  have  been  made  there  for  many, 


194  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 

many  years,  and  are  manufactured  in  great  numbers  both 
in  large  factories  and  in  the  homes  of  the  peasants. 

Nuremberg  is  about  as  large  as  our  capital  city,  Wash 
ington,  but  it  would  be  hard  to  imagine  two  cities  more 
unlike.  Nuremberg  represents  in  great  measure  the  old 
life  of  some  hundred  years  ago,  while  Washington  stands 
for  the  most  modern  life  of  the  twentieth  century.  The 
old  wall  still  surrounds  the  city,  with  some  of  the  towers 
and  gates  remaining.  The  quaint  old  houses  with  their 
steep  pitched  roofs  and  with  the  second  story  projectmg 
over  the  first,  the  ancient  market  place,  and  the  narrow 
streets  of  the  older  parts  of  the  city  make  one  feel  as  if 
he  were  living  in  the  seventeenth  century,  in  spite  of  the 
fact  that  we  see  also  modern  factories  for  the  manufacturs 
of  chemicals,  machinery,  electrical  apparatus,  and  scientihc 
and  musical  instruments. 

You  have  all  read  of  the  Black  Forest  and  its  stories 
of  goblins,  witches,  and  fairies.  In  parts  of  it  the  woods 
are  so  dense  that  it  is  no  wonder  that  the  Germans  call 
it  vSchwarzwald,  or  "  Black  Woods."  Other  parts  of  the 
forest  are  very  pleasant.  The  sun  flickers  through  the 
trees,  and  the  pine  needles  make  a  clean,  dry  carpet  under- 
neath ;  birds  nest  and  sing  there ;  and  silvery  brooklets 
trickle  between  mossy  banks. 

Many  peasants  live  in  the  more  open  spaces  and  till 
their  small  farm;;.  During  the  long  cold  winter  the  men 
and  boys  work  at  wood  carving.  They  make  many  toys 
of  various  kinds  and  also  the  cuckoo  clocks  which  many  of 
you  have  seen.  The  cases  of  these  clocks  are  of  wood, 
often  very  beautifully  ornamented  Avith  carvings  of  animals, 
fruits,  or  birds.    There  is  a  little  door  on  the  front  just 


GERMANY  AND  THE  WORLD  WAR 


195 


above  or  below  the  face  of  the  clock.  When  the  hour 
sounds,  this  door  opens  and  a  little  cuckoo  springs  out 
and  calls  his  name  or  warbles  some  short  strain  of  music. 

One  very  interesting  region  of  Germany  which  we 
must  be  sure  to  visit  before  leaving  the  country  is  the 
Harz  Mountains.  As  we  walk  through  the  little  villages 
or  climb  the  steep 
slopes  of  the  moun- 
tains, at  whatever 
door  we  chance  to 
stop  we  are  greeted 
by  such  a  chorus  of 
chirps  and  trills  and 
calls  and  whistles 
as  only  "  Birdland  "' 
can  furnish.  And 
we  are  really  in 
the  canary  center 
of  the  world,  where 
in  ordinary  years 
many  thousands  of 
the  beautiful  yellow 
songsters  are  raised. 

To  see  the  finest 
singers  let  us  go  up  the  mountain  to  St.  Andreasburg, 
a  little  village  high  on  the  slope.  The  air  is  so  clear  and 
pure  that  people  suffering  wath  throat  or  lung  troubles  are 
often  advised  to  go  there.  The  birds  also  become  strong 
and  hardy  and  develop  fine  voices,  and  the  St.  Andreas- 
burg "  rollers,"  as  they  are  called,  are  considered  the  finest 
songsters  in  the  world. 


©  Underwood  &  Underwood 

Fig.  80.  The  Cases  of  the  Cuckoo  Clocks 
ARE    OF   Wood,   often   very    beautifully 

OUNAMENTED    WITH    CaRVINGS 


196  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  —  EUROPE 

To  assist  in  their  training,  larks,  nightingales,  and  spe- 
cially trained  canaries  with  soft,  sweet  voices  are  used. 
There  are  also  various  mechanical  devices  which  produce 
long  trills,  water  bubbles,  flute  notes,  and  other  pleasing 
sounds.  Amid  such  surroundings  the  young  birds  begin 
to  sing.  Only  those  with  pure,  soft  voices  capable  of  high 
training  remain  here  long.  The  poorer  singers  are  removed 
to  another  room  where,  though  they  never  will  make  first- 
class  singers,  their  trainmg  still  continues.  Most  of  the 
birds,  however,  which  are  raised  in  St.  Andreasburg  and 
the  vicinity  are  better  than  those  bred  in  the  valley. 

There  are  many  other  cities  in  Germany  which  we 
would  like  to  visit  —  Heidelberg  with  its  old  castle 
ruins ;  Cologne  with  its  marvelously  beautiful  cathedral ; 
Leipzig  with  its  great  book  binderies  and  establishments 
for  dressingf  hides  and  skins.  Time  will  not  allow  for  all 
these  trips,  but  we  must  make  a  flymg  visit  to  Berlm,  the 
capital  of  the  country. 

Berlin  is  one  of  the  three  largest  cities  in  all  Europe 
Its  situation  helps  somewhat  to  explain  why  this  is  so. 
It  is  the  most  central  city  of  Europe,  situated  in  the 
middle  of  the  great  plain,  where  important  routes  of  travel 
from  Paris  to  Petrogiad,  and  from  northern  Europe  to 
Italy,  cross  each  other. 

On  these  highways  of  traffic  it  was  natural  that  a  great 
city  should  spring  up.  Many  railroads  radiate  from  Berlin, 
and  canals  stretch  eastward  to  the  Oder  River  and  west- 
ward, by  the  Spree  and  Havel  rivers,  to  the  Elbe. 

Berlin  is  a  great  manufacturmg  center  as  well  as  an 
important  commercial  city.  You  would  soon  be  lost  in  the 
industrial  section   among   the   foundries,   machine  works. 


GERMANY  AND  THE  WORLD  WAR      197 

locomotive  works,  electrical  works,  and  silk,  cotton,  woolen, 
and  linen  mills,  unsurpassed  in  Europe. 

This  is  not  the  part  of  the  city,  however,  which  most 
visitors  like  to  see,  not  the  part  which  has  earned  for 
Berlin  the  title  of  the  cleanest  city  in  Europe.  There 
are  other  sections  where  we  can  drive  through  one  wide, 
shaded  street  after  another  and  see  no  dirt,  no  dust,  and 
no  disorder. 

There  is  one  very  beautiful  avenue  which,  because  of 
the  linden  trees  which  border  it  on  either  side,  the  Germans 
call  Unter  den  Linden.  On  this  wide  boulevard  are  sep- 
arate divisions  for  heavy  teams,  for  light  carriages,  for 
bicycles,  for  horseback  riders,  and  for  people  on  foot.  This 
avenue  is  about  a  mile  long.  At  one  end  is  the  palace, 
and  at  the  other  a  lovely  park,  called  the  Tiergarten,  or 
''  animal  garden."  Should  you  like  to  go  into  the  park 
fur  a  while  ?  We  enter  it  through  the  Brandenburg  Gate, 
a  fine  stone  structure  of  five  entrances,  the  middle  one 
surmounted  by  a  splendid  statue  of  the  Goddess  of  Victory. 
In  former  years  only  the  royal  family  might  pass  through 
this  middle  entrance. 

We  should  like  to  remain  for  hours  in  this  beautiful 
place,  in  the  deep  shade  of  the  trees  near  one  of  the  lovely 
lakes,  watching  the  horseback  riders,  the  children  playmg 
in  the  green  grass,  and  the  splendid  carriages  with  liveried 
coachmen  and  footmen.  We  must  leave  much  of  the  coun- 
try unseen  and  many  interesting  cities  unvisited,  and  hasten 
on  to  its  southern  neighbors  where  scenes  equally  beautiful 
and  industries  equally  mteresting  await  us. 


198  IXDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 

TOPICS  FOR  STUDY 


1.  Area  and  popvilation  of  Germany. 

2.  Germany  and  the  "World  War. 

3.  Some  results  of  the  war. 

4.  Mineral  products. 

5.  Agriculture  in  Germany. 

6.  Manufacturing  in  Germany. 

7.  The  situation  of  Germany. 

8.  Surface  and  drainage. 

9.  The  Rhine  River  and  its  port  of  Rottei-dam. 

10.  The  Weser  River  and  Bremen. 

11.  Hamburg  and  the  Elbe  River. 

12.  Stettin  and  the  Oder  River. 

13.  The  canal  system  of  Germany. 

14.  Home  industries  in  Germany. 

15.  Toys  and  canaries. 

16.  Berlin,  the  capital  of  Germany. 

II 

1.  Sketch  a  map  of  Germany.  Write  the  names  of  all  tlie  litmi 
and  water  boundaries.  What  ones  are  different  from  what  they  were 
before  the  World  War  ?  Is  the  country  of  Germany  larger  or  smaller 
than  it  was  before  the  war? 

2.  In  your  map  of  Germany  trace  the  courses  of  the  principal 
rivers  and  write  their  names.  Write  also  the  names  of  all  the  cities 
mentioned  in  the  text.  Be  able  to  state  one  fact  about  each  of  the 
cities  you  have  named. 

3.  Sketch  a  map  showing  the  Baltic  Sea,  the  arms  of  the  sea, 
and  the  surrounding  countries.  Show  the  Kiel  Canal.  Why  was  this 
canal  internationalized  at  the  close  of  the  World  War  ? 

4.  Have  you  ever  read  "  The  Pied  Piper  of  Hamelin  "  ?  Tell  the 
story  to  the  class.    With  what  river  of  (Termany  is  it  connected? 

5.  Name  the  waters  on  which  goods  would  be  carried  in  going 
from  New  Orleans  to  Bremen;  from  New  York  to  Berlin. 

6.  Tell  the  advantages  of  the  situation  of  Hamburg.  Why  has 
Stettin  not  grown  to  be  so  important  a,  city  ? 


GERMANY  AND  THE  WORLD  W  AR 


199 


HI 

Be  able  to  spell  and  pronounce  the  following  names.  Locate  each 
place  and  tell  what  was  said  of  it  in  this  and  in  any  previous  chapter. 
Add  other  facts  if  possible. 


Alsace-Lorraine 

Czechoslovakia 

Colorado 

East  Indies 

England 

France 

Netherlands 

Russig, 

Saxony 

Scandinavia 

I'nited  States 

Berlin 

Bremen 

Chemnitz 

Cologne 

Dresden 

Dilsseldorf 

Elberfeld 

Essen 

Frankfort 


Hamburg 

Heidelberg 

Kiel 

Krefeld 

Leipzig 

London 

Lowell 

]\Iainz 

^Mannheim 

New  (Orleans 

Nuremberg 

Paris 

Petrograd 

Pittsburgh 

Portland 

Rotterdam 

Ruhrort 

St.  Andreasburg 

Sonneberg 

Stettin 

"Washington 


Baltic  Sea 

Black  Forest 

Danube  River 

Elbe  River 

Erzgebirge 

Green  Mountains 

Harz  Mountains 

Havel  River 

Kiel  Canal 

jNIoldau  River 

Moselle  River 

North  Sea 

Oder  River 

Rhine  River 

Rhone  River 

Saar  River 

Seine  River 

Spree  River 

Thuringian  Mountains 

A'istula  River 

Weser  River 


CHAPTER  XII 

THE  COUNTRIES  OF  CENTRAL  EUROPE  AND  THE 

DANUBE  RIVER 

If  you  look  at  any  map  of  Europe  printed  before  1919, 
you  will  find  in  the  center  of  the  continent  the  country 
of  Austria-Hungary.  Though  smaller  than  Texas,  Austria- 
Hungary  contained  about  half  as  many  people  as  the  whole 
United  States,  and  the  population  was  made  up  of  more 
nationalities  than  could  be  found  in  any  other  European 
country  except,  possibly,  Russia  and  Turkey.  There  were 
Germans  and  Magyars,  Poles,  Czechs,  Serbs,  and  other 
members  of  the  Slav  race,  besides  other  peoples  whose 
names  you  might  find  it  hard  to  pronounce.  Each  of  these 
races  differed  from  the  rest  as  much  as  a  Greek  differs 
from  an  Italian,  or  a  Frenchman  from  a  Norwegian.  There 
was  little  in  customs,  religion,  language,  or  character  to 
bind  these  different  nationalities  together.  Each  was  jeal- 
ous of  the  others  and  looked  down  upon  them  in  scorn  as 
inferior  peoples.  Many  of  the  people  of  the  part  of  the 
empire  known  as  Austria  were  of  the  same  race  as  the 
Germans,  resembled  them  in  appearance  and  character, 
and  used  to  a  great  extent  the  German  lanCTuasre. 

About  half  the  inhabitants  of  Hungary  are  Magyars,  a 
people  of  the  same  ancestry  as  the  Turks,  though  there  is 
little  resemblance  between  the  two  nations  to-day.  Each 
of  the  three  races  —  the  Germanic  Austrians,  the  Slavs,  and 

200 


SOUTHEASTERN 
EUROPE 


SCALE    OF   MILES 


THE  COUNTRIES  OF  CENTRAL  EUROPE    201 

the  Magyars  —  had  little  love  for  the  others  and  no  desire 
to  be  ruled  by  them;  for  years  it  was  the  strong  hand 
of  the  old  emperor,  Francis  Joseph,  that  held  together 
these  quarrelsome  elements. 

It  has  long  been  the  desire  of  the  people  of  the  Slav 
race  who  lived  in  the  southern  part  of  Austria-Hungary  to 
unite  with  those  of  the  little  countries  of  Serbia  and  Mon- 
tenegro farther  south  and  set  up  an  independent  nation. 
Serbia's  chief  aim  in  joining  in  the  World  War  was  to 
free  those  people  of  her  race  who  were  living  under  the 
rule  of  Austria-Hungary  and  thus  enlarge  the  kingdom  of 
the  Serbs.  Thus  has  come  into  being  the  new  country 
of  Jugoslavia.  The  word  Jugodavia  means  "  Southern 
Slavs."  Most  of  the  people  in  Czechoslovakia,  another  new 
country  of  Central  Europe,  are  also  Slavs  who  live  farther 
north.  Between  these  two  new  Slav  countries  lie  Hungary, 
peopled  largely  by  INIagyars,  and  Austria,  most  of  whose 
people  are  Germans.  Therefore  the  greater  part  of  Cen- 
tral Europe  to-da}-,  instead  of  being  largely  occupied  by 
one  great  empire,  as  it  was  before  the  war,  is  made  up 
of  four  countries,  —  Jugoslavia,  Czechoslovakia,  Austria, 
and  Hungary, 

Czechoslovakia  is  a  country  about  as  large  as  Alabama. 
It  is  an  inland  region,  its  southern  part  drained  by  the 
Danube  and  its  branches,  and  the  northern  portions  by 
German  rivers.  Much  of  the  commerce  of  the  country  will 
be  carried  on  by  these  rivers  and  their  connecting  canals. 

Notice  the  western  part  of  Czechoslovakia  where  it  juts 
northward  toward  Germany.  This  part,  known  as  Bohemia, 
occupies  about  a  fourth  of  the  entire  country.  It  is  sur- 
rounded by  mountains   where  are   found   many  valuable 


202 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 


minerals.  The  interior  of  Bohemia  is  the  basin  of  an  old 
inland  sea,  about  the  size  of  Lake  Michigan.  The  soil  of 
.this  old  basin  is  very  fertile,  as  such  valleys  usually  are, 
and  farming  is  important.  The  population  is  dense  and 
consequently  the  farms  are  very  small.  Grains,  vegetables, 
fruits,  hops,  sugar  beets,  and  grapes  are  the  piincipal  crops, 


Fig.  81.   The  Life  of  the  Peasant  in  Czechoslovakia  is  a 

Simple  One 

and  cattle-raising  and  hog-raising  are  important.  The  life 
of  the  peasant  is  very  simple,  his  needs  few,  and  his  food 
cheap.  Yet  he  is  often  unable  to  supply  his  few  needs 
from  his  small  farm,  and  during  the  winter  months  many 
of  the  farmers  and  their  families,  like  those  of  Germany 
and  other  European  countries,  work  at  a  variety  of  occupa- 
tions in  their  own  little  homes.    Large  quantities  of  tools 


THE  COUNTRIES  OF  CENTRAL  EUROPE 


203 


and  kitchen  utensils  are  made  in  Bohemia  in  this  way,  and 
buttons,  bags,  lace,  embroideries,  gloves,  hair  nets,  beads, 
linen,  and  many,  many  other  things  are  made  in  the  peasants' 
houses  during  the 
cold  months  when 
there  is  little  to  do 
on  the  farms. 

Before  the  war 
Bohemia  was  the 
most  important  part 
of  the  old  empire 
of  Austria-Hungary. 
It  is  blessed  by 
Nature  with  almost 
every  kind  of  agri- 
cultural and  mineral 
resource.  The  great 
sugar  industry  of  the 
empire  was  centered 
in  Bohemia ;  the 
guns  of  the  Au stro- 
ll ungarian  artillery 
were  made  here ; 
about  half  of  the 
enormous  quantity 
of  beer  manufac- 
tured in  the  country  was  brewed  ,  in  this  section ;  its 
textile  industries  were  most  important,  and  its  production 
of  embroideries,  lace,  linen,  leather,  chemicals,  hardware, 
and  machinery  was  very  large.  The  Elbe  River,  of  which 
you  read  in  the  last  chapter,  drains  much  of  Bohemia,  and 


Fig.  82.    W'li.i,  the  Butter  eveu  come? 
A  country  scene  in  Czechoslovakia 


204  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  —  EUROPE 

most  of  the  foreign  trade  is  carried  on  by  rail  and  water 
through  the  great  port  of  Hamburg  at  its  mouth. 

All  tourists  in  Bohemia  like  to  purchase  gloves  while 
in  this  country,  and  some  of  the  supply  m  our  stores  has 
come  from  this  part  of  Czechoslovakia.  The  leather  for 
the  gloves  is  cut  at  the  factories,  but  the  making  is  done 
largely  in  the  homes.  One  of  the  family  does  the  ornamental 
stitching  on  the  back,  another  the  stitching  of  the  seams, 
another  makes  the  buttonholes  or  fastens  on  the  snaps.  In 
parts  of  Bohemia  there  are  thousands  of  women  and  girls 
who  spend  all  their  time  at  home  in  working  on  gloves. 

You  have  all  heard  of  Bohemian  glassware,  which  has 
been  famous  for  centuries.  The  china  and  porcelain  made 
there  is  almost  as  well  known,  and  in  ordinary  years  much 
fine  tableware  is  exported  from  this  part  of  Europe  into 
the  United  States. 

The  mineral  springs  of  Bohemia  have  brought  her  much 
fame  and  money.  The  hot  water  of  these  springs  is  thought 
to  be  helpful  in  curing  many  diseases,  though  the  wry 
faces  of  some  of  the  drinkers  indicate  that  the  taste  is 
not  always  pleasant.  Millions  of  bottles  of  mineral  waters 
and  salts  have  been  sent  out  of  the  country  annually,  and 
thousands  of  people  each  year  have  visited  the  springs. 

What  kind  of  a  bath  will  you  take  while  you  are  at 
the  springs  ?  You  may  have  your  choice  of  a  mud  bath, 
a  mineral  water  bath,  a  carbonic  acid  bath,  or  a  Russian 
steam  bath.  These  are  only  a  few  of  the  many  varieties 
which  the  visitors  at  the  bathing  establishments  connected 
with  the  springs  may  experiment  with. 

While  we  are  in  this  part  of  Czechoslovakia,  you  will 
enjoy  a  visit  to  the  old  city  of  Prague,  which,  next  to 


THE  COUNTRIES  OF  CENTRAL  EUROPE 


205 


Vienna  and  Budapest,  is  the  largest  city  of  Central  Europe. 
Prague  is  really  a  cluster  of  towns  connected  by  as  many 
bridges  over  the  little  river  in  whose  valley  the  city  has 
grown  up. 

Prague  is  an  old  city.    Its  ancient  town  hall  was  built 
one  hundred  and  fifty  years  before  Columbus  sailed  across 


Fig.  83.   Sheep  raising  in  Czechoslovakia 


the  Atlantic.  Its  moat  filled  with  water  once  protected 
the  place  from  invasion,  but  has  since  been  changed  into 
a  splendid  street.  Its  Jewish  burying  ground  is  eight 
hundred  years  old. 

You  remember  reading  in  the  chapter  on  Russia  of  the 
Kremlin  of  Moscow,  and  the  wonderful  collection  of  build- 


ings mside  the  historic  inclosure. 


Prague  has  a  Kremlin 


206  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 

also,  a  collection  of  castles,  cathedrals,  monasteries,  and 
arsenals,  which  forms  the  most  interesting  part  of  the  city. 
Much  of  the  history  of  the  ancient  place  centers  around 
these  buildings. 

Now  let  us  go  to  the  new  city,  the  modern  Prague,  as 
different  from  the  older  part  as  our  modern  Washington 
is  different  from  some  historic  New  England  village.  Here 
is  one  of  the  finest  museums  in  Europe,  a  splendid  modern 
theater,  an  art  gallery,  a  university,  banks,  street  railways, 
and  hotels  such  as  one  might  find  in  any  up-to-date  city  of 
the  world.  Here  are  also  many  manufacturing  establish- 
ments, car  shops,  machine  works,  breweries,  and  paper  mills, 
and  many  other  industries  which  you  would  expect  to  see 
in  a  busy  manufacturing  city. 

The  country  of  Jugoslavia,  sometimes  known  as  the 
Kingdom  of  the  Serbs,  Croats,  and  Slovenes,  extends  along 
the  eastern  shores  of  the  Adriatic  Sea.  It  is  about  as 
large  as  Italy  and  is  made  up  of  Serbia,  Montenegro, 
and  some  of  the  southern  provinces  of  the  old  country  of 
Austria-Hungary.  Of  these  different  divisions,  Montenegro 
is  the  most  rugged  and  mountamous,  and  Serbia  is  the 
largest  and  most  important. 

Like  the  other  countries  of  the  Balkan  Peninsula,  Serbia 
and  Montenegro  were  once  parts  of  the  great  Turkish 
Empire,  hike  the  other  countries  also,  they  revolted  from 
Turkey  because  of  the  cruelty,  the  oppression,  and  the 
backwardness  of  their  Mohammedan  rulers. 

Owing  to  wars,  oppressive  government,  and  consequent 
poverty,  the  Serbs  have  not  as  yet  progressed  very  far  in 
civilization.  They  had  made  a  good  start  in  this  direc- 
tion when  the  World  War  broke  out  in  1914.    What  they 


THE  COUNTRIES  OF  CENTRAL  EUROPE    207 

suffered  during  this  war  has  set  them  back  many  years. 
More  than  a  fourth  of  the  people  of  Serbia  were  killed 
in  the  war  or  died  from  disease  or  hunger.  Many  of  her 
towns  and  villages  were  destroyed,  three  fourths  of  her  live 
stock  killed  and  driven  away,  and  half  of  her  tools  and 


Fig.  84.    In  the  Serb  City  of  Uskib 
A  shoe  salesman  iu  the  market  place 

machinery^  stolen  or  broken  up  by  the  retreating  enemy. 
Knowing  these  facts,  we  can  understand  that  it  must  be  a 
long  time  before  the  villagers  will  be  tilling  their  small 
farms  and  living  comfortably  and  happily  again  in  their 
little  homes. 

The  part  of  Jugoslavia  which  is  occupied  by  Serbia  is 
rich  in  the  gifts  bestowed  on  it  by  ]M other  Nature.    The 


208 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  —  EUROPE 


soil  is  fertile,  the  climate  good,  the  water  supply  abundant, 
the  rivers  numerous,  tlie  mineral  wealth  great,  and  the 
forests  large.  Before  the  war  none  of  the  people  were  very 
rich,  but  neither  were  any  very  poor.  Perhaps  one  reason 
for  this  is  the  fact  that  most  of  the  peasants  owned  their 
little  farms.    The  land  was  divided  among  the  people,  and 


Fig.  85.    Jugoslavia  has  many  Towns  Similar  to  this  One 

there  were  few  large  estates  held  by  the  wealthy  and  worked 
by  the  peasants  as  tenants.  Nine  tenths  of  the  people  were 
farmers  and  raised  on  their  farms  most  of  the  things  that 
they  needed  in  their  daily  life.  Their  crops  of  grain  and 
vegetables  and  their  cattle  gave  them  food,  and  their  flax 
and  flocks  supplied  materials  for  clothing.  If  a  Serb  ac- 
quired a  little  extra  money,  it  was  securely  hidden  m  an 
old  stocking  or  invested  in  tools  or  machinery  for  his  farm. 


THE  COUNTRIES  OF  CENTRAL  EUROPE    209 

From  the  little  villages  clustered  under  the  plum  trees 
the  men  carried  their  wheat  and  corn  in  rough  wooden  carts 
for  miles  to  the  mills  along  the  rivers.  Here  the  grain  was 
ground  much  as  it  is  in  the  river  mills  along  the  Danube. 
Every  peasant  had  and,  as  the  country  recovers  from  its 
great  losses,  hopes  to  have  again  his  cattle,  sheep,  goats, 
and  pigs.  There  is  nmch  fine  pasture  land  in  the  countr}^ 
and  many  head  of  live  stock  can  be  raised.  Some  of  these 
wander  through  the  forests  of  oak  and  beech  and  feed  on 
the  nuts  under  the  trees. 

There  are  two  chief  reasons  why  Serbia  suffered  so 
greatly  in  the  World  War.  One  is  because  of  its  position. 
The  Balkan  Peninsula  forms  a  great  highway  of  trade 
between  European  countries,  with  their  extensive  manu- 
factures and  dense  populations,  and  undeveloped  Asia, 
with  its  riches  of  raw  materials  and  its  people  just  awaken- 
ing^ to  new  needs  and  desires,  ^lost  of  the  Balkan  Pen- 
insula  is  mountainous.  The  ancient  trade  routes  and  the 
modern  railroads  must  follow  the  valleys  of  the  rivers. 
These  connect  Belgrade  on  the  northern  border  of  Serbia 
with  Constantinople,  the  key  to  Asia.  Study  a  good 
map  on  which  these  valley  routes  are  shown.  Find  also 
another  valley  route  which  runs  south  to  the  port  of 
Salonica  on  the  ^^gean  Sea.  The  two  chief  railroads 
of  the  Balkan  Peninsula  follow  these  valleys.  You  can 
readily  see  that,  if  Germany  wished  to  get  possession  of 
Central  and  Southern  Europe  and  thence  expand  into 
Asia,  it  was  necessary  for  her  to  control  these  railroads 
and  have  possession  of  the  through  lines  from  Belgrade  to 
the  waters  at  the  south.  It  was  in  the  campaigns  directed 
to  this  end  that  Serbia  suffered  most. 


210 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 


The  other  chief  cause  for  much  of  the  destruction  and 
suffering  in  Serbia  was  her  natural  wealth.  The  Central 
Powers  needed  the  grain,  the  cattle,  and  the  mmerals  of 
both  Serbia  and  Rumania.  Serbia  is  very  rich  in  mineral 
deposits,  and  some  of  her  mines  have  been  worked  smce 


Fig.  86.    A  Potter  in  Jitgoslavia 

the  time  of  the  Romans.  Lead  and  copper  were  very  neces- 
sary in  the  carrying  on  of  the  war,  and  neither  Germany 
nor  her  tool  and  ally,  Austria-Hungary,  produced  these 
minerals  in  abundance. 

Belgrade  is  the  chief  city  of  Jugoslavia.    It  was  larger 
than  Duluth,  Mmnesota,  but  m  the  "World  War  scores  and 


THE  COUNTRIES  OF  CENTRAL  EUROPE 


211 


hundreds  of  its  buildings  were  destroyed,  and  many  of  its 
industries  were  crippled.  We  all  hope  that  never  again 
will  war  cause  so  much  suffering  and  loss.  The  city  is 
situated  on  the  Danube  River  near  the  mouths  of  both 
northward-flownng  and  southward-flowing  rivers.  Thus  its 
position  is  of  great  importance,  as  it  controls  routes  in  all 
directions.    For  this  reason  it  has  been  for  ages  an  object 


Fig.  87.    A  Village  in  Jugoslavia 

of  warfare  between  nations  on  all  sides,  and  has  been  cap- 
tured and  recaptured  many  times.  Belgrade  has  but  few 
manufactures,  but,  as  you  can  see  from  its  position,  it  is 
an  important  distributing  center  for  nearly  all  the  exports 
and  imports  of  the  region. 

The  present  country  of  Austria,  once  a  part  of  the 
empire  of  Austria-Hungary,  is  a  hilly  and  mountainous 
land  in  which  much  of  the  soil  is  unfit  for  agriculture. 
It  has  comparatively  few  resources   of  importance.    The 


212  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 

greater  part  of  tbe  chief  industries  of  the  old  empire  were 
carried  on  in  other  parts  of  the  country. 

Vienna,  once  a  city  of  more  than  two  milKon  people, 
and  the  gay,  proud  capital  of  a  prouder  empire,  is  to-day 
the  capital  city  of  a  little  country  of  perhaps  nine  or  ten 
million  people.  Before  the  World  War  Vienna  was  very 
wealthy,  but  its  wealth  came  chiefly  from  people  nearly  all 
of  whom  made  their  money  in  parts  of  the  kingdom  now 
included  in  Czechoslovakia,  Poland,  and  other  independ- 
ent nations.  Vienna  was  the  center  of  art,  of  science,  of 
government,  of  education,  of  commerce,  of  banking,  of 
sports  and  amusements,  and  of  wealth  and  fashion.  During 
the  war  Vienna  lost  much  of  its  wealth.  To-day,  instead 
of  being  the  capital  of  a  great  empire,  it  is  only  the  capital 
of  a  small,  poor  country  with  few  resources  and  industries. 
What  will  be  the  future  of  the  city  ?  Will  Prague,  Buda- 
pest, Warsaw,  or  some  other  metropolis  take  its  place  as 
the  gay  center  of  Central  Europe  ?  Only  time  can  answer 
the  question. 

The  countries  of  Central  Europe  have  very  little  sea- 
coast,  but  they  possess  one  of  the  greatest  rivers  of  Europe, 
the  beautiful  blue  Danube.  A  sail  down  this  wonderful 
river  takes  us  into  the  heart  of  Hungarj",  a  region  famous 
for  its  grain  fields.  The  Danube  is  about  the  same  length 
as  the  St.  Lawrence,  but  bears  very  little  resemblance  to  it 
in  other  ways.  Unlike  the  American  river,  which  has  its 
source  in  one  of  the  Great  Lakes,  the  Danube  has  its 
beginning  in  two  tiny  streams,  the  Brigach  and  the  Brege. 
They  start  in  the  foothills  of  the  Black  Forest  Mountains 
and  come  tumbling  over  the  rocks,  gathering  strength  from 
little  streamlets  which  hurry  down  the  slopes. 


THE  COUNTRIES  OF  CENTRAL  EUROPE 


213 


It  seems  hardly  possible  that  this  small,  muddy  stream 
is  really  the  mighty  Danube.  But  as  it  flows  along,  now- 
through  smilmg  valleys  and  now  in  the  shadow  of  tower- 
ing^ mountain  peaks,  now  spreading  its  blue' waters  around 
green  islands  and  now  receiving  swift  streams  from  wooded 


Fig.  88.  Ulm,  the  Head  of  Navigation  on  the  Danube 

highlands  and  from  the  high  Alps,  it  grows  in  volume  from 
the  tiny  brooklet  to  the  mighty  river,  the  second  largest 
in  Europe. 

Not  many  miles  from  the  source  of  the  Danube  you  will 
find  the  city  of  Ulm,  the  head  of  navigation  on  the  river. 
Ulm  is  a  very  old  city  with  crooked  streets,  and  narrow 
houses,  many  of  which  have  stood  since  the  days,  centuries 
ago,  when  the  crusaders  passed  down  the  Danube  valley 
on  their  way  to  Asia  to  rescue  the  burial  place  of  Clirist 
from  the  hands  of  Turkish  Mohammedans. 


214 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 


Below  Ulm,  in  place  of  the  acacia  trees  which  lined  the 
banks  of  the  river  farther  upstream,  we  see  long  rows  of 
willows.  Beyond  them,  in  the  fields,  some  peasant  women 
are  digging  potatoes  with  curious-looking  spades.  Central 
Europe  produces  enormous  quantities  of  potatoes.  The 
crop  is  so  immense  that  if  it  were  loaded  on  freight  cars 


Fig.  89.    The  Soil   i^   Rich,  and   much   Greater  Crops    than   are 

NOW    HARVESTED    MIGHT    BE    RAISED 


of  the  ordinary  capacity,  the  train  would  be  more  than 
long  enough  to  fill  three  tracks  stretching  from  London 
across  Europe  and  Asia  to  Peking,  China. 

Farther  down  the  river  we  see  the  people  working  in 
the  hayfields  and  bending  over  the  long  rows  of  sugar 
beets.  There  are  many  factories  where  immense  quan- 
tities of  beet   sugar  are   made,   and  this  product  is  one 


THE  COUNTRIES  OF  CENTRAL  EUROPE  215 

of  the  chief  exports  of  the  region.  Both  men  and  women 
are  at  work  in  the  fields.  The  women  and  girls  can  do 
nearly  as  much  work  as  the  men,  bat  their  pay  is  much 
smaller,  in  some  cases  amounting  to  only  twenty-five 
dollars  a  year. 

Some  heavy,  lumbering  wagons  filled  with  hay  and  drawn 
by  cows  or  oxen  are  waiting  for  the  ferry  to  cross  the  river. 
The  animals  show  no  hesitation  in  going  aboard  the  large, 
flat  boat,  and  stand  quietly  chewing  their  cuds  while  the 
boat  is  slowh'  pulled  across  the  stream  by  means  of 
wire  guys. 

Kelheim,  where  we  next  stop,  is  a  town  of  little  impor- 
tance save  for  the  fact  that  it  is  the  terminus  of  the  Ludwig 
Canal.  This  important  waterway  extends  to  the  Main  River 
and  thus  joins  the  waters  of  the  Danul^e  and  the  Rhine  and 
of  the  Black  and  North  seas. 

We  see  many  large,  flat  boats  being  towed  by  horses  up 
the  stream.  These  were  filled  farther  up  the  Danube  with 
cfrain  or  with  lumber  from  the  mountain  forests  and  were 
drifted  downstream  with  the  current,  carrying  the  horses 
on  board.  After  the  freight  is  unloaded  the  horses  drag  the 
empty  boats  back  to  the  starting  place.  Most  of  the  long- 
distance traffic  of  this  part  of  the  Danube  valley  is  carried 
on  by  rail,  but  the  local  trade  from  town  to  town  is  carried 
on  in  this  primitive  way  on  the  river. 

We  are  approaching  Passau,  a  (^ueer  old  town  where  the 
houses  cling  to  the  steep  rocks,  and  the  roads  zigzag  back 
and  forth  up  the  steep  hills.  When  we  consult  our  maps 
of  the  region  and  find  that  the  city  is  situated  almost  on 
the  boundary  line  ox  Germany  we  understand  better  the 
reason  for  the  great  fort  which  crowns  the  heights. 


216 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 


Just  below  the  city  of  Passau  the  boundary  line  is 
marked  by  a  great  rock  which  stands  in  the  middle  of  the 
river.  As  we  pass  this  ancient  landmark  we  can  see  on 
its  summit  a  shrine  with  a  crucifix  and  a  rude  fissure  of 
a  saint  which,  as  one  author  says,  "  gazes  eternally  on  the 
flowing  river  as  if  looking  forward  to  the  time  when  peace 


Fig.  90.    '"We  are  approaching  Passau,  a  Queer  Old  Town" 


shall  dwell  between  all  nations  and  there  shall  be  no  need 
of  the  frowning  fortress  on  the  heights."' 

Thus  far  in  our  trip  we  have  seen  freight  boats,  and 
barges  towed  by  horses,  and  a  few  small  skiffs,  but  no 
steamer  traffic.  The  regular  steamboat  service  extends  no 
farther  up  the  river  than  the  city  of  Passau,  but  at  that 
place  we  can  take  a  comfortable  boat,  much  like  those 


THE  COUNTRIES  OF  CENTRAL  EUROPE 


217 


steamers  which  ply   on    lakes    and    rivers  in   the   United 
States,  for  places  farther  downstream. 

Many  of  the  small  streams  which  enter  the  river  from 
the  mountains  are  filled  with  logs.  These  are  floated  down 
into  the   Danube,  where  in   places   they  line   the   banks, 


while  waiting  to  be  towed  down  to  Vienna. 


Little  villages 


Fig.  91.    There  are   Steep  Cliffs  with   Ruined  Castles  clinging 
TO  THEIR  Sides  or  perched  upon  their  Summits 


of  quaint  houses  like  those  of  Switzerland,  with  broad  bal- 
conies and  overhanging  roofs,  can  be  seen  in  the  sheltered 
valleys  and  on  the  more  gentle  slopes. 

This  part  of  the  Danube  above  Vienna  rivals  the  Rhine 
in  beauty.  On  either  side  are  dark,  wooded  mountains,  and 
steep  cliffs  v/ith  ruined  castles  clinging  to  their  sides  or 
perched  upon  their  summits.    iVIany  a  gallant  crusader  and 


218  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 

thrifty  merchant  lost  his  wealth  and  perchance  his  life  to 
the  robber  knights  who  lived  in  these  gray  old  castles  and 
preyed  on  the  travelers  who  dared  attempt  the  journey 
down  the  Danube.  The  legends  of  brave  knights,  cruel  rob- 
bers, lovely  maidens,  and  horrible  witches  are  as  numerous 
and  as  fascinating  as  those  of  the  Rhine. 

Soon  the  broadening  river  full  of  boats  and  the  open- 
ing plain  surrounded  by  hills  tell  us  that  we  are  nearing 
Vienna. 

The  city  stands  on  the  shores  of  the  Danube  just 
where  the  river  cuts  its  way  between  the  Alps  on  the 
west  and  the  Carpathians  on  the  east.  This  natural  water 
highway  thus  furnishes  a  route  from  western  Asia  into 
northern  and  western  Europe.  Other  natural  routes  of 
travel  lead  through  passes  in  the  mountains  and  through 
river  valleys  from  northern  Italy  to  Germany  and  Russia. 
Railroads  alwa}- s  follow  the  easiest  routes ;  therefore  they 
radiate  from  Vienna  through  these  natural  highways  like 
the  spokes  of  a  wheel.  The  rivers  of  this  section  do  not 
lead  to  open  ocean  ports,  so  that  most  of  the  ocean-bound 
freight  is  carried  by  rail,  and  Vienna  has  thus  become  a 
great  railroad  center. 

We  should  like  to  remain  in  the  cit}'  for  some  da^^s, 
to  visit  the  great  university,  to  see  the  royal  palace,  to 
drive  between  the  long  rows  of  linden  trees  on  the  Ring- 
strasse,  the  beautiful  boulevard  which  has  been  built  around 
the  city  where  the  ancient  moat  once  lay,  or  to  walk  in 
one  of  the  finest  of  all  the  parks  of  Europe,  the  Prater. 
This  beautiful  pleasure  resort  contains  stately  forests  of 
oaks,  elms,  and  chestnuts,  lovely  gardens,  sparkling  lakes, 
and  wide  avenues.    There  are  games  and  shows  and  animals 


THE  COUNTRIES  OF  CENTRAL  EUROPE 


219 


and  merry -go-roiinds  and  so  many  interesting  sights  that 
we  should  find  plenty  of  entertainment  for  many  hours; 
but  we  finally  decide  to  turn  from  these  and  the  other 
attractions  to  another  part  of  the  city,  where  are  located 
the  great  cotton  and  silk  mills  and  other  factories. 


^  UnUerwood  &  Underwood 

Fig.  92.    The  Pkater  is  One  of  the  Finest  Parks  in  Europe 


We  are  interested  in  the  glove  manufactures  and  buy 
several  pairs,  for  they  are  of  fine  quality  and  cheaper  than 
they  are  in  America.  Skins  from  the  sheep  and  lambs 
which  feed  on  the  plain  of  Hungary,  and  from  the  goats 
which  wander  over  the  pastures  of  the  Balkan  Peninsula, 


220  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 

are  used  in  great  quantities  in  the  leather  manufactories 
of  Vienna,  and  many  gloves  are  exported  from  the  city. 

We  see  also  in  the  stores  musical  and  scientific  instru- 
ments and  glittering  displays  of  china  and  glassware. 
Many  railroads  branch  out  from  Vienna,  carrying  these 
and  other  products  to  all  parts  of  Europe  and  to  the 
seaports  to  be  shipped  to  other  continents. 

With  regret  we  leave  the  gay  city  behind  us  and  con- 
tinue our  sail  down  the  river.  This  part  of  the  trip  is 
made  in  a  large  steamer  which  reminds  us  of  those  used 
on  the  Hudson  River.  Pleasure  boats,  carrymg  merry 
Viennese  crowds,  are  flying  up  and  down.  The  river  is 
full  of  craft  passing  and  repassing  the  huge  rafts  of  lum- 
ber —  heavy  boats  filled  with  grain  and  puffing  tugs  towing 
vessels  many  times  larger  than  themselves. 

Some  thirty  or  more  miles  from  Vienna  the  hills  close 
in  on  either  side  of  the  river,  and  we  know  that  beyond 
them  lies  the  object  of  our  sail  —  the  great  plam  of  Hun- 
gary. The  Carpathian  Mountains  encircle  it  for  nine 
hundred  miles,  forming  a  natural  boundary  from  the  north- 
west around  to  the  east  and  south.  Besides  the  opening  in 
the  mountains  through  which  the  river  enters  from  the 
west,  and  the  narrow  gorge  in  the  south  where  it  works 
its  way  through  the  heights  out  of  Hungarian  territory,  the 
only  means  of  communication  between  the  inclosed  plain  and 
the  outside  world  is  through  a  few  difficult  mountain  passes. 
The  Danube,  as  you  can  see,  is  the  only  natural  waterway 
which  connects  the  valley  of  Hungary  with  other  countries. 
There  is  only  one  river  in  the  whole  plain,  a  small  branch 
of  the  Vistula,  which  does  not  finally  join  the  Danube  on 
its  way  to  the  Black  Sea.    For  more  than  six  hundred  miles, 


THE  COUNTRIES  OF  CENTRAL  EUROPE    221 

a  distance  about  equal  to  that  from  Duluth  to  St.  Louis, 
winding  in  and  out  across  the  level  plain,  bordered  by  corn- 
fields and  waving  wheat,  the  great  river  flows  on,  the  nar- 
row remnant  of  an  immense  lake  which  once  filled  the  whole 
valley.  Through  long  ages  the  basin  has  been  gradually 
filled  by  the  fine,  rich  soil  brought  by  the  streams  from  the 
mountains  around.  This  deposit,  which  in  places  is  several 
hundred  feet  thick,  is  the  secret  of  the  great  fertility  of  the 
region.  There  are  a  few  barren  tracts,  but  nearly  all  of  this 
great  Hungarian  plain  is  capable  of  producing  immense 
crops  much  larger  than  the  peasant  of  to-day  in  his  igno- 
rance of  scientific  agriculture  has  dreamed  of  raising.  For 
miles  and  miles  on  either  side  of  the  river  one  can  see  fields 
of  nodding  wheat,  yellow  corn,  climbing  hops,  blue-eyed 
flax,  stalky  hemp,  grapes  ripening  in  the  sun,  tobacco  plants 
hiding  the  ground  beneath  their  great  leaves,  and  acres  of 
mealy  potatoes  such  as  a  Maine  farmer  might  well  envy. 
We  must  not  picture  this  whole  region,  however,  as  a  plain. 
Though  there  are  large  areas  as  level  as  a  floor,  there  are 
also  great  stretches  of  rolling,  hilly  land  much  like  parts  of 
New  England.  In  the  pastures  of  the  upland  region  large 
numbers  of  horses  and  cattle  feed,  and  in  the  oak  forests 
thousands  of  hogs  live  on  the  acorns.  In  every  village  you 
can  hear  the  cackling  of  hens  and  the  crowing  of  roosters. 
A  ride  through  the  Danube  valley  furnishes  manj'-  odd, 
interesting  sights.  Down  by  the  river  is  a  swmeherd  tend- 
ing the  hogs  from  the  village  yonder ;  he  makes  a  curious 
appearance  in  his  long  blouse  and  full  trousers.  He  has  a 
staff  to  aid  him  in  guiding  his  squealing  charges,  and  he 
carries  a  long,  curiously  sliaped  pipe  from  which  he  enjoys 
his  afternoon  smoke.    When  the  sun  gets  low  he  drives  the 


999 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 


hogs  back  to  the  village  and  sees  that  each  animal  finds  its 
way  to  its  own  sty,  which  is  nearer  to  the  family  quarters 
than  we  should  think  pleasant. 

The  country  is  very  different  from  a  farming  area  in  the 
United  States.  There  are  no  farmhouses  dottins:  the  land- 
scape,  surrounded  by  orchards  and  green  fields  and  ripening 
crops.  The  peasants  live  in  villages  and  often  go  several 
miles    to    their  work.    During    the    day  the   villages    are 

deserted  except  for 
a  few  old  people  and 
babies.  In  the  early 
morning  the  entire 
population  walk,  or 
perhaps  ride  in 
springless  wagons 
along  the  uneven 
track  which  serves 
for  a  road,  to  the 
farm  lands,  where 
they  work  until 
nearly  dusk.  At 
nightfall  the  rattle  of  the  wagons  and  the  merry  chatter 
of  the  boys  and  girls  herald  their  return  to  their  homes. 

The  scattered  buildings  in  the  village  often  cover  an 
area  large  enough  for  a  good-sized  city.  The  houses  are  \o\\, 
one-story,  whitewashed  structures  on  either  side  of  wide, 
unpaved  streets  which  are  deep  with  dust  in  summer  and 
gullied  with  rains  in  winter.  Every  house  has  its  loom, 
which  is  heard  continually  throughout  the  winter  months, 
when  the  women  ai-e  weaving  the  cloth  with  which  the 
family  is  clothed.    Not  many  moments  are  wasted.    Even 


Fig.  93.    On    Some    Level   Piece    of   Land 

NEAR     THE     WhEAT     FiELDS      THE      GrAIN      IS 
STACKED    TO    AWAIT    TlIRESHING 


THE  COUNTRIES  OF  CENTRAL  EUROPE 


223 


the  time  they  spend  on  the  long  ride  to  and  from  the 
farms  is  often  occupied  in  knitting  some  warm  garment 
for  the  cold  winter  days. 

A  harvesting  scene  in  the  Danube  valley  is  very  different 
from  one  on  the  great  plains  of  the  United  States,  where 


Fig.  94.    Many  of  the  Women  occupy  thkiu  Time  diiuxg  the  Dav 
BY   Washing  on  the  Rivek  Banks 

harvesting  machines  cut,  thresh,  and  bag  the  grain.  On  the 
Hungarian  plain  old-fashioned  methods  prevail  for  the  most 
part,  though  the  number  of  up-to-date  farming  implements 
is  increasing  rapidly.  We  see  in  many  places  men  beating 
out  the  grain  with  pitchfork  and  flail ;  others  are  driving- 
horses  round  and  round  over  the  straw  spread  out  upon 
the  ground,  to  loosen  the  seeds.    With  the  introduction  of 


221  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  —  EUROPE 

more  modern  methods  of  cultivating  and  harvesting,  the 
crop  raised  in  the  Danube  valley  will  be  greatly  increased. 

As  we  continue  our  trip  on  the  Danube  we  find  the 
scenes  on  the  water  fully  as  interesting  as  those  upon  the 
land,  for  the  peasants  use  the  river  and  its  branches  for 
many  purposes.  Whole  families  come  to  spend  the  day 
on  the  banks.  The  children  watch  the  pigs  and  fowl  on 
the  shore  while  at  the  same  time  their  fingers  are  busy 
with  some  piece  of  embroidery,  for  the  peasants  do  beau- 
tiful work  and  like  to  decorate  their  garments  with  fine 
needlework. 

The  women  occupy  their  time  by  washing  on  the  river 
banks.  On  the  flat  rocks  they  pound  out  the  dirt  from  the 
clothes  witli  a  wooden  mallet  and  carry  them  to  the  shore 
in  rude  tubs  on  their  heads.  Some  of  the  men  tend  the 
cattle,  while  others  take  the  corn  to  the  mill  to  be  ground. 
It  is  chiefly  for  this  latter  reason  that  they  have  come  to 
the  river,  for  in  Hungary  most  of  tlie  mills  for  grinding 
the  grain  are  situated  in  the  water.  All  along  this  part 
of  the  Danube  near  the  banks  where  the  current  is  swift 
these  curious  structures  may  be  seen.  The  water  wheels  are 
supported  by  two  boats  of  different  sizes.  The  larger  one 
contains  the  mill  and  the  home  of  the  miller,  while  the 
smaller  boat  farther  out  in  the  stream  contains  the  rest  of 
the  machinery. 

A  great  deal  of  the  grain  raised  in  Hungary  is  ground  in 
these  river  mills.  In  the  harvest  season  the  peasants  drive 
their  slow,  lumbering  carts,  drawn  by  oxen  or  buffaloes, 
across  the  plain  to  the  Danube  and  camp  on  its  banks, 
awaiting  their  turn  for  the  grinding  of  their  grain.  The 
journey  often  takes  many  days,  for  the  teams  are  slow  and 


THE  COUNTRIES  OF  CENTRAL  EUROPE 


225 


the  roads  are  rough.  The  peasants  carry  no  tents  or  extra 
clothmg  and  but  little  food.  When  night  comes  they  eat 
their  coarse  bread,  then  lie  down  on  the  ground  beside  the 
tired  oxen,  and  sleep  under  the  stars  till  daylight  awakens 
them.  The  carts  are  rude  affairs,  made  of  rough  wood  and 
held  together  for  the  most  part  by  wooden  pins.   Centuries 


Fig.  9.5,    The  Peasants  dtjive  their  Slow,  LrMBERixc.  Carts  across 

THE  Plain 


ago  the  army  of  crusaders  might  have  seen  just  such  teams 
crawling  over  the  plains  to  the  river  towns,  for  customs 
change  slowly  in  interior  countries. 

Besides  the  o-rain  which  is  ground  in  the  mills  on  the 
river,  a  great  deal  is  floated  down  to  the  Black  Sea  and 
there  loaded  on  steamers  and  carried  to  different  European 
countries.    Great  quantities  are  also  taken  down  as  far  as 


226 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 


Budapest  or  towed  upstream  to  Vienna,  where  many  large 
modern  mills  similar  to  those  in  Minneapolis  are  situated. 

Budapest,  splendidly  situated  in  the  heart  of  the  country 
and  at  the  lowest  place  on  the  Danube  where  it  can  be 
easily  bridged,  is  the  center  of  Hungarian  trade.  It  is 
made  up  of  two  cities,  Buda  and  Pest,  the  one  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Danube,  which  here  is  wider  than  the 
Thames  at  London,  and  the  other  on  the  left.    Buda,  on 


Fig.  '.<().    "The    White  Walls   of   the    Koyal    Talace  gleam   fkom 

THE   Hilltop" 

the  west  bank,  is  the  older,  the  smaller,  and  the  more  hilly 
of  the  two.  On  the  rocky  heights  above  the  city  stands 
an  old  fortress,  keeping  watch  on  the  river  at  its  feet. 
The  w^hite  \valls  of  the  royal  palace  gleam  from  the  hill- 
top. The  parliament  houses  of  the  capital  are  in  Pest, 
which  is  situated  on  the  low  plain  on  the  eastern  bank  of 
the  Danube.  Here  also  are  most  of  the  business  blocks 
and  fine  business  houses. 

Budapest  has  been  a  rapidly  growing  city.    To-day  it  is 
larger  than  St.  Louis   and  ranks   high  in  commerce   and 


THE  COUNTRIES  OF  CENTRAL  EUROPE 


227 


industry.   Because  of  its  situation  on  the  river,  it  carries  on 
a  great  trade  in  grain,  wine,  wool,  cattle,  and  other  goods. 

Though  Budapest  is  modern  in  all  its  aspects,  scenes 
of  a  very  different  life  lie  very  near.  You  could  not  go 
far  from  the  city  without  meeting  many  gypsies,  for  in 
Hungary  there  are  thousands  of  these  thriftless,  ignorant, 


Fig.  97.    "Budapest   is  Modern  in  All  its  Asi-ects  " 


superstitious  people.  They  usually  live  on  the  outskirts  of 
the  villages  and  towns,  and  although  the  location  is  often 
beautiful,  the  houses  and  people  are  filthy.  Sometimes  the 
houses  are  half  buried  in  the  ground  and  only  the  thatched 
roofs  are  visible. 

The  gypsies  seldom  engage  in  any  regular  occupation. 
The  women  sometimes  tell  fortunes,  and  the  men  often 
do   blacksmithing,    basket-making,    or   whitewashing,    but 


228  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 

there  is  little  skilled  labor  among  them.  They  are  very 
fond  of  music,  and  no  village  festival  is  complete  without 
the  gypsy  band. 

Besides  the  grain  from  the  borders  of  the  Danube, 
great  quantities  are  brought  from  the  valleys  of  the  Tisza 
and  the  Drave  rivers.  In  their  basins  are  the  same  level 
stretches,  the  same  straggling  villages,  the  same  rich  soil, 
and  the  same  abundant  crops  as  in  the  valley  of  the 
Danube.  Thousands  of  Magyars,  Jews,  Russians,  Bulga- 
rians, and  Serbians,  each  with  different  language,  different 
customs,  and  different  dress,  are  engaged  in  raising  the 
same  kind  of  crops.  Down  the  winding  Tisza  and  the 
muddy  Drave  and  through  the  canals  connecting  them 
with  the  Danube  come  barges  loaded  deep  with  grain,  and 
rafts  of  lumber  from  the  distant  forests.  Whole  families 
Ywe  in  the  tiny  houses  on  both  barges  and  rafts.  The 
children  play,  and  the  women  attend  to  the  cooking  and 
washing  as  if  they  were  on  land,  while  the  men  guide 
the  heavy  craft  on  its  slow  journey. 

At  the  junction  of  the  Save  and  Danube  rivers  lies 
Belgrade,  the  capital  of  the  new  country  of  Jugoslavia. 
Being  from  its  situation  the  key  to  the  rich  plain  of 
Hungary,  it  has  been  for  ages,  as  has  been  stated,  an  ob- 
ject of  warfare  between  the  countries  to  the  north  and  the 
south,  and  has  been  captured  and  recaptured  many  times 
by  these  nations. 

Beyond  Belgrade  the  river  flows  on,  now  through  fertile 
plains,  now  between  green  foothills,  across  smiling  valleys 
rich  in  yellow  grainfields,  straight  on  to  a  narrowing  gorge 
beyond  which  loom  lofty  mountains.  The  gorge  grows 
narrower  and  darker,  the  scene  more  wild  and  gloomy,  the 


THE  COUNTRIES  OF  CENTRAL  EUROPE    229 

cliffs  higher  and  straighter,  until  the  Danube  finally  makes 
a  wild  dash  between  them  and  emerges  swirling,  hurrj-ing, 
dashing,  tumbling  over  the  rocks  at  Orsova,  the  Iron  Gate. 

The  most  dangerous  part  of  this  stretch  of  water  is  now 
avoided  by  a  canal,  and  other  portions  have  been  improved 
In"  the  deepening  of  the  channel  and  by  the  removal  of 
some  of  the  rocks,  so  that  vessels  drawing  nine  feet  of 
Avater  can  safely  pass  the  place.  The  Iroii  Gate  has  been 
from  earliest  times  a  place  of  great  importance,  forming 
as  it  does  a  natural  barrier  in  this  great  water  highway 
which  connects  the  East  and  the  West. 

At  one  time  Russia  had  control  of  the  moutli  of  the 
Danube  and,  to  help  her  own  trade,  made  unwise  laws 
which  restricted  the  traffic  on  the  river.  It  is  not  possible 
for  any  nation  to  do  this  to-day,  for  an  international  com- 
mission, composed  of  men  from  all  the  interested  countries, 
controls  and  regulates  its  navigation.  The  commission  has 
surveyed  and  made  accurate  maps  of  the  delta  and  has  im- 
proved one  of  the  mouths  by  making  canals  to  avoid  the 
dangerous  places.  It  has  deepened  the  channel  of  the  river, 
shortened  the  route  by  cuttings,  and  ctherwise  aided  the 
commerce  of  the  countries  lying  in  the  Danube  valley. 

TOPICS  FOR  STUDY 
I 

1.  The  former  empire  of  Austria-Hungary. 

2.  The  new  countries  of  Central  Europe. 

3.  Czechoslovakia. 

4.  Life  and  industries  in  Bohemia. 

5.  The  old  city  of  Prague. 

6.  Jugoslavia. 

7.  Life  in  Serbia. 


230 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 


8.  The  city  of  Belgrade. 

9.  The  present  country  of  Austria. 

10.  The  Danube  River  and  its  valley. 

11.  A^ienna  and  Budapest. 


II 


1.  Sketch  Central  Europe.    Show  the  boundaries  of  tlie  countries 
as  they  were  before  the  war. 

2.  Sketch  another  map  of  Central  Europe,  showing  the  countries 
as  they  are  to-day. 

3.  The  names  of  what  countries  have  disappeared  from  tlie  map 
of  Central  Europe  ?    AVhat  new  names  are  shown  ? 

4.  Why  is  the  position  of  Serbia  important  ? 

5.  Why  has  Belgrade  grown  to  be  so  imjiortant  a  city  ?  A'ienna  ? 
Budapest  ? 

Ill 

Be  able  to  spell  and  })rouounce  the  following  names.  Locate  each 
place  and  tell  what  was  said  of  it  in  this  and  in  any  previous  chapter. 
Add  other  facts  if  possible. 


Austria 

Duluth 

Drave  River 

A  ustr  i  a-II  ungary 

Loudon 

Elbe  River 

Balkan  Peninsula 

AIoscow 

Great  Lakes 

Bohemia 

Orsova 

Hudson  River 

Czechoslovakia 

Passau 

Ludwig  Canal 

Germany 

Peking 

Main  River 

Hungary 

Prague 

North  Sea 

Italy 

St.  Louis 

Rhine  River 

Jugoslavia 

Salonica 

Save  River 

Montenegro 

Ulm 

St.  Lawrence  River 

Russia 

Vienna 

Thames  River 

Serbia 

Washington 

Tisza  River 

Turkey 

Adriatic  Sea 

Vistula  River 

Belgrade 

^Egean  Sea 

Alps  Mountains 

Budapest 

Black  Sea 

Black  Forest  Mountains 

Constantinople 

Danube  River 

Carpathian  Mountains 

CHAPTER   Xin 

THE  NETHERLANDS  AND  OTHER  DAIRYING 
COUNTRIES 

Our  next  visit  will  be  to  the  Netherlands,  and  a  strange 
country  we  shall  find  it,  different  in  many  ways  from  any 
other  which  we  have  studied.  The  land  is  lower  than  the 
Ocean,  and  nearly  as  level  as  the  floor  of  your  schoolroom ; 
there  are  no  hills,  nor  stones,  nor  dashing  waterfalls.  The 
fences  are  ditches  of  water  instead  of  wire  or  wooden  pal- 
ing.s.  The  people  wash  their  sidewalks,  scrub  their  barns, 
and  blanket  their  cows  to  protect  them  from  flies  and 
from  the  cold.  Surely  our  visit  to  this  queer  land  will  be 
an  interesting  one. 

All  of  the  Netherlands,  most  of  Denmark,  and  the  north- 
ern part  of  Belgium  may  be  included  in  the  term  "  Low 
Countries."  Of  these  three  the  Netherlands  is  the  most 
noted  for  her  dairy  products,  so  we  will  visit  that  country 
first.  It  is  a  very  small  place,  being  only  one  and  a  halt 
times  the  size  of  Massachusetts,  with  about  twice  the 
population.  It  is  very  different  from  tliat  state,  however, 
for,  as  we  have  said,  it  has  no  hills  nor  stones,  while  Massa- 
chusetts has  plenty  of  both.  More  than  halt'  of  the  Dutch 
people  live  on  farms,  while  the  majority  of  the  people  of 
Massachusetts  live  in  cities.  In  the  Netherlands  there  are 
more  than  two  million  cattle,  while  in  iNIassachusetts  there 
are  hardly  more  than  one  eiglith  of  that  number.    So  if 

231 


232  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  —  EUROPE 

we  wish  to  see  something  of  the  greatest  industry  of  the 
Netherlands  we  must  go,  not  to  the  cities  nor  the  great 
factories  and  mills,  but  to  the  farms  and  the  small  villages 
and  towns- 

Before  we  start  on  our  visit  let  us  see  why  it  is  that  the 
Netherlands  has  become  such  an  important  dairying  country. 
You  have  learned  in  your  study  of  the  United  States  that 
the  industrial  life  of  any  place  depends  very  largely  on  the 
forces  of  nature  which  are  always  at  work  in  this  great 
world  of  ours.  The  story  of  the  changes  which  they  have 
wrought  in  this  part  of  Europe  is  very  interesting. 

Long,  long  ages  ago,  where  the  country  of  the  Netherlands 
now  is,  the  great  ocean  lay.  The  Rhine,  the  Scheldt,  the 
Meuse,  and  the  smaller  rivers  of  the  region  scoured  the 
land  over  which  they  flowed  and  carried  northward  tlieir 
loads  of  silt,  much  of  which  came  from  the  lofty  moun- 
tains to  the  south.  Tliis  helped  to  build  up  the  land.  The 
winds  and  the  waves  washed  the  sand  from  the  ocean  bed 
back  and  forth  and  gradually  piled  it  up  in  hills,  or  ''dunes," 
not  very  far  from  where  the  shore  of  the  continent  is  to-day. 
Between  these  dunes  and  the  mainland  the  water  still  lav. 
For  ages  the  rivers  worked  on,  depositing  their  loads  in 
this  inland  basin  behind  the  dunes  until,  in  time,  the 
accumulations  grew  so  deep  that  the  land  began  to  appear 
above  the  surface  of  the  water,  gradually  extending  the 
shoreline  seaward  and  leaving  large  lakes  in  the  deepest 
parts  of  the  basin. 

The  mighty  ocean  did  not  peacefully  give  up  a  part  of  its 
territory,  but  struggled  long  and  fiercely  for  its  possession. 
Time  and  time  again  terrible  floods  swept  over  the  land, 
destroying  farms  and  cattle  and  villages,  and  leaving  great 


DAIRYING  COUNTRIES 


233 


lakes  where  before  had  been  fields  of  fertile  soil.    One  such 
flood  in  the  fifteenth  century  covered  thousands  of  acres  and 
destroyed  scores  of  villages.   After  each  disaster  the  sturdy 
Dutch  people   tried   harder   than    before   to   protect  their 
precious  land.   Strong  earth  walls  called  dikes  were  made  to 
keep  out  the  ocean,  and  windmills  were  built  to  pump  out 
the    water   which   accu- 
mulated ill  the  inclosed 
land.     These   reclaimed 
areas  were  called  polders, 
and  every  polder  which 
was  made  was  a  victory 
of  the  persevering  people 
over  the  mighty  ocean. 
The  work  went  on  little 
bv     little ;     everv     vear 
more   dikes   were   built, 
more  windmills  pumped 
out  the  inclosed  water, 
and  more  acres  of  fine 
farming  land  were  added 
to  the  area  of  the  country. 
If  you  look  at  the  map 
of  the  Netherlands  you 

will  see  in  the  northern  part  a  large  indentation  called 
the  Zuider  Zee.  This  is  a  part  of  the  ocean  basin  which 
has  never  been  entirely  filled  by  the  wash  from  the  rivers 
whose  courses  lie  farther  to  the  south  and  west.  The 
name  Zuider  Zee  means  "  Southern  Sea  "  and  was  given 
to  the  inlet  in  contrast  to  that  of  the  larger  body  of  water 
beyond,   known  as  the  North  Sea.    The   Zuider  Zee  has 


Fig.  98.  Windmills  pump  Water  from 
Caxals;  others  grind  Grain 


23-1  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 

existed  only  since  the  twelfth  century,  for  before  that  time 
the  part  of  the  country  where  it  now  lies  was  covered  by 
lakes  and  marshes. 

The  Zuider  Zee  is  about  eighty  miles  long  from  north  to 
south  and  about  forty  miles  wide  in  the  widest  part.  The 
Dutch  people  have  now  set  themselves  the  gigantic  task  of 
reclaimmg  the  southern  part  of  this  great  basin.  The  entire 
work  will  occupy  between  thirty  and  forty  years  and  will 
be  done  step  by  step,  as  the  task  is  far  too  great  to  com- 
plete as  a  whole. 

The  entire  undertaking  has  been  so  well  planned  that  all 
the  near-by  cities  and  the  rivers  of  the  region  will  be  undis- 
turbed. The  work  will  be  so  gradually  carried  out  that  the 
people  engaged  in  the  fisheries  of  the  Zuider  Zee  will  have 
time  to  adjust  themselves  to  the  changed  conditions. 

The  entire  cost  of  this  great  project  will  be  nearl}^  one 
hundred  million  dollars,  an  immense  sum  for  a  small  nation 
to  raise.  But  the  Dutch  people  are  willing  to  make  the 
investment,  knowing  that  the  eight  hundred  square  miles 
of  fertile  land  which  will  be  added  to  their  country  will 
yield  rich  returns. 

Having  learned  something  of  how  the  country  was  made 
let  us  see  how  it  looks.  We  can  travel  the  entire  length 
and  breadth  of  it  without  seeing  a  high  hill  or  finding  a  large 
stone.  The  whole  surface  is  level  as  a  floor  and  is  covered 
with  the  thickest,  greenest  grass  that  you  can  imagine. 
Evervwhere  throuQ-hout  the  countrv,  scattered  over  the  flat 
meadows,  are  large,  fat,  clean,  contented-looking  black-and- 
white  cows.  You  might  look  for  a  long  time  without  seeing 
a  red  cow  such  as  is  common  in  the  United  States,  though 
there  are  a  few  such  now  owned  in  the  Netherlands. 


DAIRYING  COUNTRIES 


235 


If  good  care,  cleanliness,  and  nourishing  food  can  make 
a  cow  happy,  then  the  Dutch  herds  are  certainly  to  be  envied 
above  all  others.  Their  food  is  of  the  best  and  is  very  care- 
fully prepared.  They  are  blanketed  to  protect  them  from 
the  flies  and  from  the  cold  winds  of  autumn,  and  they  live  in 
stables  as  clean  as  soap  and  water  can  make  them.  Indeed, 
many  houses  in  our  country  would  suffer  by  comparison. 

Cattle  tended  with 


such  care  and  given 
such  nourishing  food 
of  course  yield  great 
quantities  of  milk. 
The  greater  part  of 
this  is  made  into 
butter  and  cheese, 
both  of  which  are 
noted  for  their  ex- 
cellence. Formerly 
both  products  were 
made  bv  hand  on  the 
little  farms,  much 
as  they  are  to-day, 


r 

■A. 

— ■ — . 

-fr-— — ^^  ■ 

44— 

II            r^B 

-^^    ., 

iV^ 

'■'     \ 

ImL 

1 

Ulft' ''^^^^^H^^■ll^S 

Hw^^ 

^^SaSH 

K^   ' 

in 

BwS 

©  Underwood  &  Underwood 

Fig.  99.    In  Recent  Years  Large  Dairies 

HAVE    been    established    WHERE    ChEESE    IS 

MADE    in    Great    Quantities    by    Modern 
Methods 


but  in  recent  years  large  dairies  have  been  established  here 
as  in  most  dairying  countries.  The  farmers  sell  their  milk 
to  these  dairies,  and  in  them  butter  and  cheese  are  made 
in  great  quantities  by  modem  machinery. 

The  cheese  markets  of  the  Netherlands  are  verv  inter- 
esting.  We  should  find  such  a  market  in  many  towns  in 
the  northern  part  of  the  country,  but  the  largest  and  most 
important  is  in  the  little  town  of  Alkmaar,  so  we  will 
choose  that  one  for  our  visit. 


236  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 

The  square  where  the  market  is  held  is  surrounded  on 
three  sides  by  tall,  narrow  buildings,  and  on  the  fourth  side 
by  a  canal.  The  market  is  held  every  Friday,  and  on  Thurs- 
day afternoons  the  canal  is  filled  with  boats  and  barges, 
piled  high  with  round  yellow  balls.  Queer-looking  wagons 
painted  bright  red,  or  green,  or  blue  come  in  from  the 
country  loaded  with  nothing  but  cheeses.  Until  late  in  the 
evening  the  streets  resound  with  the  voices  of  young  men 
and  maidens,  who  make  a  celebration  of  the  occasion,  and 
the  wagons  rattle  over  the  pavements  through  the  entke 
night. 

Having  selected  a  good  place  for  his  product,  the  farmer 
tosses  the  golden  balls  from  boat  or  wagon  to  an  assistant, 
who  catches  them  as  skillfully  as  a  player  of  a  baseball  nine 
would,  and  piles  them  carefully  on  the  ground.  When  the 
cheeses  are  all  unloaded  they  are  covered  with  sailcloth 
until  the  market  opens.  The  piles  in  which  they  are  laid 
are  usually  eight  or  ten  cheeses  wide,  thirty  to  fifty  long, 
and  only  two  layers  deep. 

Before  market  time  some  of  the  sellers  may  be  seen  care- 
fully rubbing  their  cheeses  with  oil  until  they  shine.  The 
market  opens  promptly  at  ten  o'clock.  A  little  while  before 
that  hour  we  see  a  number  of  men  with  white  suits,  and 
hats  of  red,  yellow,  blue,  or  some  other  bright  color,  begin 
to  congregate  in  the  market  place.  These  are  the  porters, 
who  will  carry  the  cheeses  to  the  weighing  house.  The 
men  who  do  the  weighing  have  the  same  brilliantly  colored 
hats,  and  each  porter  must  take  his  load  to  the  one  who 
wears  his  color. 

When  the  clock  in  the  old  church  tower  announces  the 
opening  of  the   market,  the   country  people  remove   the 


0Q7 


DAmYI^'G  COUNTRIES  237 

covering  from  their  shining  product,  and  the  merchants 
begin  their  inspection  of  the  wares.  The  seller  remains 
quietly  standing  with  an  unconcerned  air  while  the  buyer 
feels,  smells,  and  perhaps  tastes  some  of  the  cheeses  in 
his  pile.  The  bargain  is  soon  made,  and  is  clinched  by  a 
striking  together  of  the  hands  of  the  two  parties.  To  one 
who  does  not  know  the  significance  of  this  handshake,  it 
looks  as  if  the  merchant  and  farmer  were  giving  each  other 
a  cordial  morning  greeting. 

As  the  buyer  passes  to  another  pile,  the  farmer  who  has 
closed  his  bargain  engages  some  of  the  porters  to  carry  his 
cheeses  to  the  weighing  house.  At  eleven  o'clock  the  mar- 
ket is  nearly  over,  and  when  the  chimes  ring  at  twelve  the 
square  is  empty,  cheeses,  merchants,  and  farmers  having 
disappeared  as  if  by  magic,  leaving  the  square  deserted 
until  the  next  market  day  approaches. 

The  number  of  cheeses  sold  at  Alkmaar  every  Friday  is 
astonishing.  It  is  not  unusual  for  one  hundred  thousand  to 
change  hands  during  the  morning  hours.  There  are  many 
cheese  markets  scattered  over  the  country,  chiefly  in  the 
northern  part,  though  in  no  other  is  there  so  much  business 
transacted  as  in  the  one  at  Alkmaar.  The  quantity  of 
cheese  which  is  now  made  every  year  in  the  Netherlands 
is  truly  wonderful.  If  it  were  to  be  divided  among  the 
people  of  the  country,  every  man,  woman,  and  child  would 
have  about  thirty  pounds  apiece,  but  fortunately  for  the 
health  of  the  Dutch  people  more  than  two  thirds  of  the 
product  is  exported  to  other  countries. 

More  than  three  thousand  freight  cars  would  be  re- 
quired to  carry  the  annual  exports  of  Dutch  cheese  from 
the  dairies  to  Amsterdam.    Six  or  seven  hundred  of  these 


238 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 


cars  would  be  loaded  with  England's  share,  while  the 
amount  carried  by  the  remaining  cars  would  be  shipped  to 
several  other  countries. 

Some  of  you  are  perhaps  wondering  what  cheese  is  and 
how  it  is  made.  If  some  rennet,  a  substance  prepared  from 
a  calf's  stomach,  be  put  into  milk  it  makes  the  milk  curdle. 

In  the  process  of  curd- 
ling, the  casein  and  fat, 
two  of  the  principal  ele- 
ments in  milk,  separate 
from  the  others  and  form 
a  solid  substance  called 
curds ;  the  watery  ma- 
terial which  is  left  is 
called  whey. 

When  the  curds  are 
pressed,  more  of  the 
whey  is  forced  out.  Salt 
is  added  and  the  mass  is 
worked  over.  It  is  then 
put  into  molds  of  the 
desired  shape  and  pressed 
acrain,  after  which  the 
cheese  is  left  for  some 
days  or  weeks  to  ripen.  During  the  ripening  process  the 
growth  of  certain  forms  of  vegetable  life  called  mold  gives 
to  each  kind  of  cheese  its  own  peculiar  flavor. 

The  Dutch  people  do  not  use  all  their  milk  for  cheese- 
making,  for  in  the  southern  part  of  the  country,  especially, 
great  quantities  are  used  for  butter.  A  freight  train  long 
enough  to  carry  the  entiie  cheese  product  of  the  Netherlands 


)  Underwood  &  Underwood 

Fig.  100.  Cheeses  in  .\  Modern  Dairy 


DAIRYING  COUNTRIES  239 

would  stretch  about  twenty  miles,  and  one  loaded  with 
the  butter  product  would  be  only  four  miles  shorter. 

Let  us  leave  the  dairy  farms  and  the  flat  green  meadows 
dotted  with  black-and-white  cows,  and  follow  the  butter 
and  cheese  to  the  shipping  port,  Amsterdam,  so  that  we 
may  see  what  a  Dutch  city  is  like. 

Amsterdam  has  often  been  compared  to  \^enice.  Both 
have  many  canals  which  serve  as  streets,  and  hundreds  of 
bridges.  Both  are  commercial  cities,  Venice  chiefly  of  the 
past,  and  Amsterdam  of  the  present.  In  the  northern  city 
as  well  as  in  the  southern  the  visitor  notices  that  the  water 
of  the  canals  is  very  dirty,  and  there  is  an  abundance  of 
smells  of  various  kinds  arising  from  it.  But  there  the  re- 
semblance ceases.  Amsterdam  is  cold  and  matter-of-fact. 
Venice  is  warm  and  full  of  poetry  and  romance.  Venice 
has  beautiful  old  palaces.  Amsterdam  is  full  of  solid,  dig- 
nified, but  not  beautiful,  houses.  Most  of  the  buildings  are 
built  on  a  foundation  of  piles  driven  deep  into  the  loose 
soil,  and  it  is  said  that  building  the  part  of  the  house  under 
the  ground  costs  as  much  as  building  that  which  is  above. 

In  some  of  the  older  streets  the  piles  have  settled  un- 
evenly in  the  swampy  soil,  so  that  the  houses  lean  forward 
as  if  they  were  trying  to  make  it  possible  for  the  people  in 
the  upper  stories  to  shake  hands  across  the  narrow  street. 
These  old  houses  are  tall  and  narrow  with  very  slanting  roofs 
and  are  usually  placed  with  the  gable  end  to  the  street.  In 
many  of  them,  fastened  close  to  the  window  on  the  second 
floor,  is  a  small  mirror  which  can  be  tipped  in  different 
directions.  By  looking  into  the  glass  the  Dutch  housewife 
while  busy  with  her  knitting  can  watch  the  doings  in  the 
street,  or  see  who  her  caller  is  without  going  to  the  door. 


210 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  —  EUROPE 


£)  Underwood  &  Underwood 

Fig.  101.    Amsterdam  has   Many   Canals  which   serve   as   Streets 

Though  the  water  in  the  canals  of  Amsterdam  is  dirty, 
the  houses  are  spotlessly  clean.  The  Dutch  housekeeper  is 
always   scrubbing.    Furniture,  walls,  windows,  doorsteps. 


DAIRYING  COUNTRIES  241 

I 

and  sidewalks  are  all  as  clean  as  soapsuds  and  strong  arms 
can  make  them,  and  one  Avriter  declares  that  the  trunks  of 
the  trees  are  scrubbed  also.  Be  that  as  it  may,  all  the  other 
things  around  the  house  have  their  weekly  bath.  It  may 
be  that  the  fine  quality  of  Dutch  butter  and  cheese  is 
partly  due  to  the  clean  condition  of  the  cows,  stables,  pails, 
and  tubs. 

Could  we  look  down  upon  Amsterdam  from  an  au'ship. 
we  should  see  a  dense  collection  of  dull-red  peaked  roofs 
with  here  and  there  a  tower  of  a  church  rising  above  them. 
Winding  in  and  out,  in  and  out,  among  the  buildings  are 
broad,  dark  canals,  crossed  by  many  bridges  and  filled  with 
low,  flat  barges  or  with  ships  carrying  masts  taller  than 
some  of  the  housetops.  The  larger  vessels  are  on  the  two 
most  important  canals,  the  North  Holland  Canal  and  the 
North  Sea  Canal,  both  of  Avhich  connect  Amsterdam  with 
the  open  water  and  make  the  city  a  commercial  port  of 
the  North  Sea. 

In  the  smaller  canals  we  can  see  from  our  airship  hun- 
dreds of  broad,  flat  barges.  Should  you  like  to  live  on  one 
of  these  and  creep  day  after  day  sloAvly  up  and  down  the 
winding  canals  ?  If  you  were  a  Dutch  boy  you  would  take 
your  turn  walking  on  the  bank  and  pulling  the  boat  along 
by  a  stout  rope,  while  your  father  would  sit  in  the  stern, 
smoking  the  long  pipe  tliat  is  seldom  out  of  a  Dutchman's 
mouth,  and  steering  the  heavy  craft. 

Hundreds  and  thousands  of  families  in  the  Netherlands 
know  no  other  home  than  these  barges.  They  have  their 
own  tiny  rooms  in  the  stern  of  the  boat,  their  cages  of  song 
birds,  and  their  neat  little  flower  gardens,  and  they  live 
happily  and  contentedly  in  their  moving  houses. 


242 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 


One  of  the  industries  in  Amsterdam  which  we  wish  to 
see  is  that  of  diamond-cutting.  There  are  several  estabhsh- 
ments  in  the  citv,  for  Amsterdam  is  one  of  the  chief  cen- 
ters of  the  world  for  such  work,  and  many  precious  stones 
are  cut  and  polished  in  its  workshops.  As  the  diamonds 
come  from  the  mine  they  are  rough  and  dull,  and  it  requires 

skilled  workmen  to  cut 
them  so  that  no  pieces 
of  the  precious  gems 
will  be  wasted,  and  to 
polish  them  so  that  they 
will  ghtter  and  glisten 
in  the  light. 

A  diamond  is  the 
hardest  of  stones  and 
can  be  cut  only  by  an- 
other diamond  and  pol- 
ished only  by  diamond 
dust.    That  which  gath- 

©  UnUerwoe.d  X  I  .Hierwood         g^g     from     polishiug     tllC 

Fig.  102.    A  Familiar  Sight  in  Parts       ^^^^^^     -^     ^^     valuable 
OF  THE  Netherlands 

that  every  gram  is  care- 
fully saved  in  metal  boxes.  The  United  States  is  the  best 
customer  of  the  diamond  merchants  of  Amsterdam,  and 
more  than  half  of  the  sparkling  gems  which  are  cut  in  that 
city  are  bought  by  Americans. 

The  colonial  possessions  of  the  Netherlands  are  more 
than  fifty  times  as  large  as  the  countrj^  itself,  and  much  of 
its  commerce  is  carried  on  with  these  far-away  lands.  At 
the  docks  in  Amsterdam  we  see  vessels  from  the  Dutch 
possessions  in  both  the  East  and  the  West  Indies.    Some 


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DAIRYING  COUNTRIES  243 

have  brought  cargoes  of  coffee  and  of  Ihiseed  oil,  for  Am- 
sterdam is  one  of  the  greatest  markets  for  both  of  these 
products.  Other  ships  from  the  same  rich  islands  in  the 
East  are  loaded  with  tea,  sugar,  spices,  and  cinchona  bark, 
from  which  the  bitter  medicine,  quinine,  is  made.  There 
are  also  grain  ships  \Aith  cargoes  of  rye  from  Russia  and 
wheat  from  the  United  States,  and  many  otlier  vessels 
from  near-by  European  countries  and  from  far-away  lands. 
They  will  be  loaded  with  manufactured  goods  —  leather, 
sugar,  pottery,  tiles,  bricks,  glassware,  fish,  cattle,  dairy 
products,  and  bulbs  and  seeds  for  the  return  voyage. 

In  the  Netherlands  more  people  in  proportion  to  the 
whole  population  are  engaged  in  dairying  than  in  any 
other  country  in  the  world,  yet  in  many  other  countries 
the  industry  is  a  very  important  one.  Across  the  Channel 
in  the  British  Isles  there  are  made  in  ordinary  years  enor- 
mous quantities  of  butter  and  even  larger  amounts  of  line 
cheese.  The  quantity  usually  produced  is  enough  to  give 
annually  every  person  in  the  great  city  of  London  between 
thirty  and  forty  pounds  of  both  articles.  There  are,  however, 
so  many  other  large  cities  in  England  to  be  supplied  that  she 
imports  annually  many  thousands  of  tons.  Great  quantities 
come  in  long  trainloads  from  western  Siberia,  a  region  in 
which  the  dairy  industry  has  grown  more  rapidly  than  people 
realize.  In  ordinary  years  fast  freights  run  from  Siberia 
across  the  Russian  plain  which  carry  nothing  but  butter  for 
the  London  markets.  Both  butter  and  cheese  are  imported 
from  Norway,  Sweden,  Denmark,  the  Netherlands,  Belgium, 
and  Switzerland.  Ireland's  exports  of  butter  —  nearly  all  of 
which  goes  to  England  —  are,  next  to  cattle,  of  more  value 
than  any  other  product  sent  out  of  the  Emerald  Isle.    The 


244  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  —  EUROPE 

government  lias  helped  to  establish  large  dairies  there,  and 
it  is  not  an  unusual  sight  to  meet  upon  the  road  barefooted 
boys  or  girls  driving  scores  of  donkey  carts,  loaded  with 
fresh  milk  for  the  dairy,  or  carrying  the  skimmed  milk 
back  to  the  farm  to  be  fed  to  the  calves  or  pigs. 

Denmark  is  an  important  dairying  country.  It  is  low, 
level,  and  fertile  like  the  Netherlands,  and  farming  is  the 
chief  occupation  of  the  people.  Butter  is  sent  out  of  Den- 
mark in  greater  quantities  than  an}^  other  one  article,  and 
it  is  of  more  value  than  all  the  rest  of  the  exports  put 
together.  Danish  butter  is  considered  by  many  people  the 
best  that  is  made,  and  it  is  sent  in  sealed  cans  to  all  parts 
of  the  world. 

Most  of  it  is  shipped  from  Copenhagen,  a  city  about  as 
large  as  Buffalo,  New  York,  and  the  only  really  large  city 
of  Denmark.  Perhaps  the  chief  cause  of  its  importance  may 
be  that  it  lies  at  the  entrance  of  the  Baltic  Sea,  on  the  only 
good  harbor  of  the  Danish  coast.  Copenhagen  has  really 
been  what  its  name  signifies,  a  "  Merchant's  Haven,"  for 
Russian  ships  bound  for  the  open  sea,  those  from  Norway, 
and  some  from  eastern  Germany  stop  at  its  doors.  To-day 
many  vessels  from  the  Baltic  shorten  their  route  by  means 
of  the  Kiel  Canal,  and  some  from  Sweden  choose  the  shorter 
voyage  through  the  Gota  Canal,  which  you  will  find  shown 
on  the  map  opposite  page  124.  In  spite  of  these  shorter 
routes  more  than  fifteen  thousand  ships,  carrying  great  quan- 
tities of  grain,  dairy  products,  beef,  cattle,  wool  and  hides, 
leave  the  harbor  of  Copenhagen  annually,  and  the  city  is 
reckoned  as  one  of  the  principal  ports  of  northern  Europe. 

It  is  not  alone  its  commerce  which  has  made  Copenhagen 
the  most  important  city  of  Denmark,  for  being  the  only 


DAIRYING  COUNTRIES 


245 


large  city,  most  of  the  manufacturing  also  is  done  there. 
We  might  visit  porcelain  works  and  piano  factories,  watch 
the  fine  processes  of  clock  and  watch  making,  or  see  in 
our  walks  about  the  city  great  sugar  refineries,  distilleries, 
and  tobacco  factories.    Copenhagen  is  also  a  center  of  the 


Fig.  103.   Copenhagen  is  One  of  the  Principal  Ports  of 
Northern  Europe 

literature  and  art  not  only  of  Denmark  but  of  northern 
Europe.  It  contains  a  fine  library,  and  a  wonderful  museum 
of  northern  antiquities  in  which  the  customs  of  the  people 
of  Denmark  from  earliest  times  may  be  traced.  Weapons, 
pottery,  jewels,  facsimiles  of  dwellings,  clothing,  and  many 
other  interesting  exhibits  dating  back  to  the  stone  and 
bronze  ages  are  preserved  there. 


246 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 


vvs^-'««Er^«aui?Ka~c7'r     £.■  i  ^ 


')  Underwood  Si  Underwood 

Fig.  104.   The  Little  Counthy  of  Switzerland  is  nestled  among 

THE  High  INIountaixs 

In  the  little  country  of  Switzerland,  nestled  among  the 
high  Alps,  there  are  many  cattle,  sheep,  and  goats  which 
feed  in  the  mountain  pastures.  In  a  summer  trip  through 
the  country  yon  would  wonder  where  all  the  animals  were, 
for  you  would  see  scarcely  any  in  the  valleys.   If  they  were 


DAIRYING  COUNTRIES  247 

kept  in  the  lower  liekLs  they  woukl  eat  so  much  of  tlie 
grass  that  there  woukl  be  but  little  hay  for  their  winter 
food  ;  so  in  the  early  summer  the  boys  and  girls  drive  them 
high  on  the  hills  and  mountains,  where  they  remain  until 
cold  weather  approaches.  During  the  summer  the  young 
people  remain  in  the  high  pastures  tending  the  animals, 
makmg  butter  and  cheese,  cutting  the  grass  which  the 
cattle  do  not  need,  and  spending  their  spare  minutes  knit- 
tmg  warm  socks  for  the  coming  winter.  Cold  weather 
comes  early  in  the  mountain  pastures,  and  there  is  a  great 
holiday  in  the  fall  when  the  cattle  and  sheep  come  down 
the  steep  paths  to  the  valleys. 

Those  boys  and  girls  who  do  not  go  to  the  mountains  in 
the  summer  find  plenty  of  other  work  to  keep  them  busy. 
Switzerland  has  sometimes  been  called  the  Playground  of 
the  World,  for  between  four  and  five  hundred  thousand 
tourists  visit  the  country  in  normal  years,  most  of  them  in 
the  summer  months.  Some  of  the  young  Swiss  people  work 
in  the  hotels  scattered  over  the  country.  There  are  so  many 
of  these  and  they  do  such  a  thriving  business  that  hotel- 
keeping  has  been  called  one  of  the  chief  industries  of  Swit- 
zerland. Many  of  the  tourists  wish  to  climb  the  mountains, 
but  this  is  usually  dangerous  work  unless  they  are  accom- 
panied by  a  guide  thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  region. 
No  one  knows  the  Alps  so  well  as  the  sturdy  young 
Switzers  who  have  spent  their  lives  among  them,  and 
hundreds  of  young  men  find  occupation  in  this  way,  while 
during  the  winter  months  many  of  the  men  and  boys  spend 
their  time  in  carving  out  of  wood,  chairs,  tables,  picture 
frames,  paper  cutters,  umbrella  holders,  and  boxes  of  all 
kinds,  which  the  tourists  buy  iii  great  quantities. 


248  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 

In  driving  througli  the  quaint  little  Swiss  villages  we 
should  see  the  girls  and  women  sitting  in  front  of  their  neat 
chalets,  as  the  Swiss  houses  are  called,  doing  exquisite 
embroidery  or  tossing  the  bobbins  in  and  out,  in  and  out, 
as  they  add  inch  by  inch  to  the  beautiful  lace  which  each 
worker  is  making  on  a  hard  pillow  in  her  lap.  This  work 
furnishes  occupation  for  all  the  spare  minutes  during  the 
summer  months  and  for  the  long  hours  in  the  wmter  when 
there  is  no  work  to  be  done  outside  on  the  little  farm. 

Great  quantities  of  embroideries  are  also  made  by  ma- 
chinery, and  this  industry  is  one  of  the  most  important  in 
Switzerland,  employing  more  than  seventy-five  thousand 
people.  Wonderful  machines  have  been  invented,  and  the 
work  that  they  do  is  so  fine  and  beautiful  that  it  is  hard 
in  some  cases  to  tell  whether  or  not  it  is  done  by  hand. 
American  manufacturers  of  embroideries  are  equipping 
their  plants  with  Swiss  machinery,  and  a  majority  of  the 
factories  in  St.  Gall,  the  center  of  the  industry  in  Switzer- 
land, are  either  owned  outright  or  controlled  by  Americans. 
It  seems  hardly  possible  that  little  Switzerland,  a  country 
only  about  twice  the  size  of  iSIassachusetts,  can  furnish 
more  than  thirty-five  million  dollars'  worth  of  hand-worked 
and  machine-made  embroideries,  but  this  immense  quantity 
is  exported  every  year. 

Making  articles  for  the  tourist  trade,  working  on  the 
farm,  doing  the  housework,  tendmg  the  cattle,  and  making 
butter  and  cheese  keep  most  of  the  Swiss  people  busy 
throughout  the  year.  Not  all  of  the  people,  however,  live 
on  farms,  for  there  are  large,  important,  manufacturing 
cities  in  Switzerland.  The  country  is  so  centrally  located 
that,  since  the  mountains  have  been  tunneled,  it  is  easy  to 


DAIRYING  COUNTRIES  249 

import  materials  and  to  send  away  manufactured  products. 
In  the  chapter  on  silk  you  will  read  of  Zurich,  the  largest 
city  and  the  center  of  the  silk  industry.  Of  the  eighty  silk 
mills  in  Switzerland,  the  majority  are  in  and  around  Zurich, 
where  this  old  industry  flourishes  \Aith  most  up-to-date  ma- 
chinery and  inventions.  Basel,  another  important  Swiss  city, 
is  noted  the  world  over  for  its  manufacture  of  ribbons. 

Perhaps  some  of  you  may  own  or  may  have  seen  a  Swiss 
watch.  These  are  made  in  the  city  of  Geneva,  wljich  has 
lono-  been  famous  for  the  manufacture  of  watches  and 
jewelry.  To  many  people  the  shop  windows  with  their 
fascmating  displays  prove  as  attractive  as  the  blue  waters 
of  the  Lake  of  Geneva  with  its  border  of  rugged  mountains. 
Watchmaking  is  one  of  the  oldest  industries  in  Switzerland 
and  is  carried  on  to-day  in  several  cities  besides  Geneva. 

Another  industry  in  Switzerland  in  which  every  boy  and 
girl  who  likes  candy  will  be  interested  is  the  making  of  sweet 
chocolate.  Thousands  of  tons  of  cakes  of  chocolate  and  cans 
of  cocoa,  worth  millions  of  dollars,  are  made  in  Switzerland 
every  year.  Most  of  it  is  of  a  very  superior  quality  and 
is  sold  in  large  quantities  to  other  European  countries. 

All  these  and  other  industries  were  greatly  interrupted 
by  the  four  years  of  the  World  War.  Switzerland  was 
not  one  of  the  fighting  countries,  but  she  was  surrounded 
by  nations  at  war.  Her  trade  was  entirely  cut  off  and  her 
industries  crippled.  Of  course  no  tourists  visited  Switzer- 
land during  the  war,  and  her  big  hotels  were  all  closed 
except  a  few  which  were  used  as  hospitals  for  soldiers  of 
the  Allied  armies. 

About  four  fifths  of  Switzerland  is  very  mountainous. 
Few  people  live  in  these  parts  except  tourists  and  hotel 


250  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 

keepers  who  stay  during  the  summer  months.  Most  of 
the  people  hve  in  the  lowlands.  Here  the  soil  is  good,  but 
the  area  is  too  small  to  support  many  of  the  population. 
Hence  the  people  have  turned  to  other  occupations.  The 
mountains  which  have  proved  such  an  obstacle  in  many 
ways  have  been  of  great  help  in  others.  Tourists  in  large 
numbers  have  been  attracted  by  their  beauty.  Many  of 
the  slopes  are  covered  with  forests.  The  people  use  the 
wood  in  making  toys  and  various  articles  of  furniture  and 
have  become  very  skilled  in  such  work.  In  some  towns 
and  cities  wood-carving  is  taught  in  the  schools.  Tumbling 
down  the  steep  mountain  sides  there  are  hundreds  of 
streams  which  furnish  an  enormous  amount  of  water-power 
for  manufacturing.  Tliis  power  is  one  of  Switzerland's 
most  important  resources  and  each  year  sees  more  and 
more  of  it  being  utilized.  The  electricity  generated  by  this 
power  runs  trolle}^  cars  and  many  railroads.  Another  use 
which  is  made  of  it  is  the  taking  of  nitrogen  from  the  air 
and  making  it  into  fertilizer.  About  four  fifths  of  the  air 
is  nitrogen.  Plants  are  very  dependent  on  it  and  must 
have  it  in  certain  forms  to  help  their  growth.  The  nitrate 
beds  of  Chile,  South  America,  are  very  valuable  and  for 
years  have  furnished  a  large  part  of  the  world's  supply. 
These  deposits  will  not  last  forever  and  so,  as  they  have 
done  in  other  ways,  the  chemists  have  come  to  the  help  of 
the  farmer.  They  have  experimented  in  taking  nitrogen 
from  the  air  and  getting  it  to  unite  with  other  substances 
so  that  it  might  be  used  in  fertilizers.  Switzerland,  Norway, 
the  United  States,  and  Germany  have  gone  ahead  of  other 
countries  in  this  industry  and  have  been  for  some  years 
perfecting  machinery  and  methods  by  which  this  important 


DAIRYING  COUNTRIES  251 

work  may  be  clone.  Both  Switzerland  and  Norway  are 
mountainous  countries  and  have  been  greatly  aided  by  the 
immense  amount  of  water-power  which  they  possess.  Their 
"  white  coal "  enables  them  to  run  their  machmery  more 
cheaply  than  those  countries  which  depend  on  the  black 
mineral  mined  in  the  earth. 

Before  we  leave  the  dairying  countries  we  must  visit 
tlie  little  mountain  village  of  Roquefort,  in  the  southwest- 
ern part  of  France,  where  cheese-making  has  been  carried 
on  for  eight  hundred  years.  The  region  around  is  of  lime- 
stone formation,  which  is  easily  worn  away  by  water,  and 
consequently  the  mountains  contain  many  deep  caves  and 
(lark  passages.  In  the  town  there  are  less  than  a  thousand 
people.  Their  tall,  narrow-  houses  clinging  to  the  steep 
slopes  look  very  queer  to  us,  for  they  have  only  one  or  two 
rooms  on  a  floor  and  are  from  two  to  four  stories  high. 
The  wealth  of  these  village  people  is  in  the  awkward,  long- 
legged  sheep,  which  find  their  food  in  the  scanty  herbage  of 
the  mountain  sides.  The  milk  which  is  obtained  from  them 
forms  the  chief  support  of  the  villagers ;  it  is  sold  to  the 
large  firms  which  control  the  dairy  industry  of  this  region, 
and  is  made  in  their  great  factories  into  cheese.  This  is 
put  to  ripen  into  the  cool  caves  in  the  mountains,  where 
the  peculiar  form  of  mold  which  develops  in  Roquefort 
cheese  gives  it  its  special  flavor. 

The  United  States  raises  more  cattle  than  any  other 
country.  Our  great  area  gives  us  plenty  of  room  for  pasture 
land,  and  our  fertile  soil  yields  quantities  of  grass  for  hay ; 
so  we  are  not  surprised  to  learn  that  the  United  States 
ranks  first  in  the  world  in  the  amount  and  value  of  its 
dairy  products.    We  produce  enough  milk  every  year  to  fill 


252  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 

a  tank  fifty  feet  in  diameter  and  one  hundred  miles  high. 
The  butter  made  annually  in  the  United  States  would 
make  a  square  pile  one  hundred  feet  on  a  side  and  half 
a  mile  high.  To  appreciate  better  this  immense  quan- 
tity, measure  the  length  and  width  of  your  school  building 
and  compare  its  dimensions  with  those  of  the  pile  of  butter. 
If  the  cheese  manufactured  every  year  in  this  country  were 
spread  out  six  inches  deep  between  the  rails  of  an  air- 
,  line  railroad,  it  would  reach  from  Chicago  to  Charleston, 
South  Carolina. 

The  manufacture  of  such  immense  quantities  of  butter 
and  cheese  as  are  produced  in  our  country  and  in  other 
lands  furnishes  occupation  for  thousands  of  people.  Thou- 
sands more  find  employment  in  caring  for  the  cattle  which 
produce  the  milk.  In  making  both  butter  and  cheese  great 
quantities  of  salt  are  used,  and  the  production  of  this 
necessary  article  gives  work  to  other  thousands  in  various 
parts  of  the  world. 

Let  us  leave  the  green,  fertile  plains  of  the  Netherlands, 
the  mountain  pastures  of  Switzerland,  and  the  cool  caves  of 
Roquefort  for  Poland,  one  of  the  most  mteresting  countries 
of  the  new  Europe. 

TOPICS  FOR  STUDY 


1.  The  low  countries. 

2.  The  story  of  the  formation  of  the  Netherlands. 

3.  Floods  and  dikes. 

4.  Reclaiming  the  Zuider  Zee. 

6.  Appearance  of  the  Netherlands. 

6.  The  cheese  market  of  Alkmaar. 

7.  How  cheese  is  made. 


DAIRYING  COUNTRIES  253 


8.  Butter-making  in  the  Netherlands. 

9.  Descrijition  of  Amsterdam. 

10.  Dairying  in  the  British  Isles. 

11.  Butter-making  in  Denmark. 

12.  Description  of  Copenhagen. 

13.  Dairying  in  Switzerland. 

14.  Other  indiistries  in  Switzerland. 

15.  Cities  of  Switzerland. 

16.  Roquefort  cheese. 

17.  Dairying  in  the  United  States. 


^a 


II 

1.  "What  is  said  in  Chapter  III  of  Ireland  as  a  dairying  country? 
What  facts  are  added  in  this  chapter? 

2.  Sketch  a  maj)  of  Europe  and  color  all  the  countries  where 
dairying  is  an  important  occupation. 

3.  Add  to  your  maj)  the  names  of  all  the  cities,  rivers,  and  other 
bodies  of  water  mentioned  in  this  chapter. 

4.  Do  you  know  Phoebe  Cary's  poem,  "  The  Leak  in  the  Dike  "  ? 
Tell  the  story  as  told  in  the  poem. 

5.  ^Yrite  a  list  of  the  chief  colonial  possessions  of  the  Netherlands. 
What  early  settlements  were  made  in  America  by  the  Dutch? 

6.  Ship  a  cargo  of  dairy  products  from  Amsterdam  to  each  of 
the  Dutch  possessions.  Tell  the  waters  sailed  on  in  each  voyage,  the 
destination,  and  the  return  cargo. 

7.  Where  do  the  diamonds  which  are  cut  in  Amsterdam  come 
from  ? 

8.  Trace  the  route  on  which  the  diamonds  are  taken  from  the 
mines  to  the  city  of  Amsterdam. 

9.  Name  the  causes  which  have  made  Copenhagen  an  important 
city. 

10.  By  w'hat  route  do  goods  come  from  Zurich  to  New  York? 
from  Basel?   from  Geneva? 

11.  Write  a  list  of  the  industries  of  Switzerland.  Give  the  reasons 
for  the  carrying  on  of  each  industry.  \Yliich  one  would  you  best 
like  to  see? 

12.  Write  a  list  of  the  chief  dairying  states  in  the  United  States. 
What  states  raise  cattle  for  beef  ? 


254 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 


III 

Be  able  to  spell  and  pronounce  the  follow 
place  and  tell  what  was  said  of  it  in  this  and 
Add  other  facts  if  possible. 


Belgium 

British  Isles 

Denmark 

East  Indies 

England 

France 

Germany 

Ireland 

Italy 

Massachusetts 

Norway 

Russia 

Siberia 

Sweden 


Switzerland 
United  States 
West  Indies 

Alkmaar 

Amsterdam 

Basel 

Copenhagen 

Detroit 

Geneva 

London 

Roquefort 

St.  Gall 

Venice 


ing"  names.   Locate  each 
in  any  previous  chapter. 

Zurich 

Baltic  Sea 
English  Channel 
Gota  Canal 
Kiel  Canal 
Meuse  River 
North  Holland  Canal 
North  Sea 
North  Sea  Canal 
Po  River 
Rhine  River 
Scheldt  River 
Zuider  Zee 


CHAPTER  XIV 
THE  COU:sTKY  OF  POLAND 

The  next  place  which  we  will  visit  is  Poland,  one  of  the 
countries  of  new  Europe.  We  cannot  call  it  one  of  the 
new  countries  of  Europe,  for  Poland  is  a  very  old  country. 
Centuries  before  the  explorers  set  sail  from  western  Europe 
to  discover  and  colonize  a  new  world  the  kincjs  of  Poland 
were  ruling  over  a  large  kingdom.  At  the  time  of  its 
greatest  power,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  sixteenth  century, 
Poland  was  considerably  larger  than  Germany  is  to-day 
and  was  one  of  the  greatest  powers  in  Europe. 

For  many  years  since  that  time,  however,  though  there 
were  millions  of  Poles  in  Europe,  there  was  no  Poland. 
A  Polish  poem  says, 

The  wild  dove  has  its  nest,  and  the  worm  a  clod  of  earth, 
Each  man  has  a  country.    The  Pole  has  but  a  grave. 

The  downfall  of  the  ancient  and  powerful  khigdom  of 

Poland  was  due  largely  to  two  causes.    The  first  one  liad 

to  do  with  the  surface  of  the  land.    Ancient  Poluuil  was 

a  great  plain  with  few  natural  boundaries  to  separate  it 

from  her  ambitious  neighboi-s,  no  high  mountains,  no  great 

rivers,  no  wide  expanse  of  sea  or  desert.    Such  boundaries 

are  always  a  great  protection  to  a  country.    In  the  absence 

of  such  natural  defenses,  Poland,  however,  could  be  easily 

invaded  b}'  the  armies  of  her  enemies. 

255 


256  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 

The  other  reason  for  the  downfall  of  Poland  was  con- 
nected with  the  people.  The  Poles  have  always  been  noted 
for  their  courage  and  their  love  of  independence.  Among 
the  nobles  this  love  of  liberty  was  carried  so  far  that  the 
freedom  of  the  individual  counted  for  more  than  that  of 
the  nation.  The  nobles  were  unwilling  to  sacrifice  any- 
thing of  their  own  wealth  or  power  or  privileges  in  order 
that  the  nation  as  a  whole  might  become  strong  and  power- 
ful. This  soon  led  to  such  selfishness  and  other  evils  that 
the  kingdom  was  weakened  and  so  became  a  prey  to  the 
stronger  nations  around  it.  Three  times  Poland  has  been 
partitioned  among  its  neighbors,  Russia,  Austria-Hungary, 
and  Germany.  Now  these  different  parts  of  Poland  are 
united  and  the  country  stands  again  among  the  inde- 
pendent nations  of  the  world.  The  people  are  once  more 
free  to  speak  their  own  language,  to  make  their  own  laws, 
and  to  run  their  own  schools. 

When  Poland  was  divided  among  her  conquerors,  Austria 
was  given  the  part  next  to  the  Carpathian  Mountains. 
In  this  area  lies  the  interesting  old  city  of  Krakow,  the 
early  capital  of  the  kingdom  before  the  seat  of  the  govern- 
ment was  transferred  to  Warsaw.  Krakow  is  perhaps  the 
best  beloved  city  of  the  Polish  people.  It  is  an  ancient 
place.  Its  university  is  between  five  and  six  hundred  years 
old  and  ever  since  the  vear  1400  has  G^ranted  des^rees  to 
the  students  who  have  attended  it. 

On  a  rock  overlooking  the  Vistula  River  is  the  Wawel 
(vah-vel),  a  fortified  part  of  the  city.  Here,  according  to 
the  old  legend,  is  the  ancient  castle  in  whose  deep  dungeon 
Krak,  the  mythical  founder  of  the  city,  slew  the  dragon 
which  had  long  lived  by  human  sacrifices. 


THE  COUNTRY  OF  POLAND 


257 


Within  the  walls  of  the  Wawel  is  the  old  cathedml, 
dating  back  nearly  five  centuries  before  ever  Christoplier 
Columbus  set  sail  on  his  eventful  voyage  across  the 
Atlantic.  Here  lie  the  bones  of  famous  Polish  statesmen, 
heroes,  and  poets.  Here  also  are  the  tombs  of  her  kings, 
and  here,  before  the  high  altar,  lier  rulers  were  crowned. 


)  Brown  &•  Dawson 

yiG.  10.5.   The  Peasant  Women  still  dkive   thkik   Gkkse   in   from 
THE  Country  as  Polish  Women  have  done  for  Centuries 

In  the  old  market  place  we  can  see  much  of  the  life 
of  the  city.  The  electric  cars,  the  well-lighted  streets,  and 
the  passing  automobiles  are  of  the  twentietli  century.  But 
the  old  market  and  the  ancient  buildings  are  of  much  earlier 
years.  The  barefooted  peasant  women  bring  in  from  the 
■country  on  their  broad  backs  their  loads  of  vegetables  and 
fruits,  or  their  chickens  and  geese,  as  Polish  women  have 
done  for  centuries. 


258  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 

Farther  north  on  the  Vistula  River  is  a  city  larger  than 
St.  Louis.  This  is  Warsaw,  another  city  of  ancient  Poland, 
founded  in  1269.  Four  hundred  years  later  it  succeeded 
Krakow  as  the  capital  of  the  country,  and  for  many  years 
was  one  of  the  gayest,  most  brilliant  capitals  of  all  Europe. 

Warsaw  to-day  is  an  important  industrial  center.  Every- 
where we  see  signs  of  its  growth  and  development.  In  the 
manufacturing  part  of  the  city  among  the  foundries,  the 
cotton,  linen,  and  woolen  mills,  the  breweries  and  distil- 
leries, there  is  little  to  remmd  us  of  the  fact  that  we  are 
four  thousand  miles  from  home  in  an  ancient  city  which 
was  vainly  lighting  for  its  life  at  a  time  when  we  were 
struggling  to  become  independent. 

The  new  Warsaw  is  a  very  beautiful  city.  It  has  at- 
tractive stores,  splendid  streets,  fine  parks  and  boulevards, 
and  numerous  open-air  cafes  like  those  of  Paris.  Leaving 
this  part  of  the  city,  we  soon  find  ourselves  in  an  entirely 
different  section,  where  the  effects  of  age,  war,  and  poverty 
are  seen  on  every  side.  The  mean,  low  liouses  are  huddled 
together  with  no  apparent  effort  at  order  or  arrangement, 
and  the  streets  twist  and  wind  as  if  trvinor  to  sret  bv  the 
buildings  which  stand  in  their  way.  It  seems  queer  to 
think  that  into  such  a  city  and  into  the  country  which  lies 
around  it  have  gone  many  tools  and  machines  from  our  most 
up-to-date  factories.  We  have  sent  to  Warsaw  saws,  planes, 
augers,  chisels,  axes,  hammers,  hatchets,  padlocks,  meat 
choppers,  clothes  wringers,  and  other  hardware.  From  our 
manufactories  have  gone  also  binders,  reapers,  mowing  ma- 
chines, rakes,  and  harrows  for  the  farms  on  the  fertile  plains 
of  Poland.  The  goods  sent  to  us  are  chiefly  the  agricultural 
products  of  the  country  —  beet  seed,  flax,  tow,  and  wool. 


THE  COUNTRY  OF  POLAND 


•259 


For  the  most  part  Poland  is  an  agricultural  country  and 
most  of  the  people  are  farmers.  Around  Warsaw  and  Lodz, 
however,  there  are  rich  beds  of  coal  and  iron,  and  the 
deposits  of  these  useful  minerals  account  for  the  develop- 
ment of  these  cities  into  important  industrial  centers. 


I  Brown  Bros. 

Fig.  106.    The  Newer  Part  of  Warsaw  is  beautiful 


In  the  World  War  when  Russia  was  fighting  against 
the  Central  Powers  tlie  eastern  battle  front  for  a  long 
time  lay  in  Polish  territory.  Parts  of  her  area  were  fought 
over  agam  and  again  and  the  sufferings  of  her  people  were 
terrible.  Their  farms  and  factories  were  destroyed,  their 
cities  and  towns  laid  in  ruins,  and  men,  women,  and  chil- 
dren, homeless  and  starving,  died  in  great  numbers.  These 
things  set  back  for  many  years  the  development  of  Poland. 


260 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  —  EUROPE 


The  commercial  importance  of  the  great  city  of  Warsaw 
lies  not  in  its  trade  with  us  or  with  any  other  distant  country 
but  in  the  traffic  which  is  carried  on  with  Danzig  up  and 
down  the  Vistula  River.  In  our  trip  down  the  Vistula  we 
shall  certainly  wish  to  visit  this  queer  old  city  which  is 


Publishers'  Photo  Service 


Fig.  107.    Polaxd  is  an  Agricultural  Country 


built  on  the  slopes  of  the  hills  overlooking  the  delta. 
Before  the  war  Danzig  was  a  German  port.  By  the  terms 
of  the  treaty  in  1919  it  has  been  internationalized,  that  is, 
made  free  to  the  vessels  of  all  nations. 

During  the  Middle  Ages  Danzig  was  one  of  the  chief 
commercial  centers  of  the  world,  and  many  of  the  quaint 
old  buildings,  narrow  and  tall,  with  odd  stone  porches,  still 


THE  COUNTRY  OF  POLAND         261 

remain.  There  are  also  great  granaries  down  by  the  river, 
still  known  by  such  queer  names  as  "  Golden  Pelican," 
"  Whale,"  "  Milkmaid,"  and  ''  Patriarch,"  which  were  given 
them  in  those  far-away  days  when  Danzig  merchants  sent 
their  grain  ships  to  Venice  and  brought  back  spices,  gums, 
perfumes,  silks,  and  other  luxuries  of  the  East. 

DoAvn  the  Vistula  from  the  peasants'  farms  to  the  south- 
ward come  clumsy  barges  full  of  wool  and  lumber,  and 
wheat,  corn,  and  other  grains.  These  are  sold  and  stored 
in  the  granaries,  the  barges  taken  apart,  and  the  lumber 
disposed  of.  The  boatmen  trudge  back  on  foot  through  the 
valley  or  find  passage  on  some  of  the  vessels  ascending  the 
river.  If  we  were  to  examine  the  cargoes  of  some  of  these 
vessels,  we  should  find  the  products  of  many  countries. 
There  is  coal  from  England,  oil  from  the  United  States, 
coffee  from  Brazil,  fish  from  Scandinavia,  as  well  as  salt 
and  breadstuff s  for  the  peasants. 

The  display  of  amber  in  the  stores  in  Danzig  is  fascinat- 
ing, for  the  beads  look  like  great  drops  of  crystallized 
sunshine.  Amber  is  often  called  the  "  tears  of  the  daughters 
of  the  sun,"  who  wept  beside  the  river,  mourning  the  death 
of  Phaethon,  who  attempted  to  drive  the  sun  chariot  across 
the  sky  in  place  of  his  father,  Apollo. 

The  true  story  of  the  origin  of  amber  is  as  wonderful  as 
the  myth.  Ages  ago  the  continent  of  Europe  was  not  of 
its  present  shape.  Northern  Germany,  now  a  low  plain,  was 
covered  by  the  waters  of  a  sea  much  larger  than  the  present 
Baltic.  On  its  borders  grew  luxuriant  forests  of  oak,  beech, 
birch,  cedar,  cypress,  chestnut,  and  many  other  familiar  kinds 
of  trees.  There  also  grew  in  great  numbers  a  species  of 
pine  unlike  any  found  in  the  world  to-day.   A  tliick,  sticky 


262  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 

sap,  or  resin,  exuded  from  these  trees  in  much  the  same 
way  as  it  does  from  our  common  pitch  pine,  only  in  much 
greater  quantities.  Sometimes  it  was  shed  in  drops  from 
the  branches ;  sometimes  it  trickled  to  the  ground,  leaving 
long  threads  behind.  At  certain  seasons  it  flowed  in  such 
quantity  that  it  completely  covered  whole  cones  and  twigs 
or  even  branches  and  trunks.  Queer  insects  which  lived  m 
those  far-off  days  were  often  trapped  in  the  gummy  mass, 
as  flies  are  on  sticky  paper. 

These  pine  forests  must  have  flourished  for  many  centu- 
ries, for  immense  quantities  of  the  yellow  resin  accumulated. 
During  long  ages  this  resin  became  buried  deeper  and  deeper 
under  accumulating  soil,  and  slowly  changed  from  a  sticky 
gum  into  a  hard  substance  as  yellow  as  gold  and  as  clear 
as  crystal. 

As  centuries  passed,  some  of  the  hardened  gum  was 
washed  by  streams  and  storms  into  the  great  sea  to  the 
north.  Some  remained  where  it  had  fallen  and  became 
buried  under  the  masses  of  branches,  needles,  and  decay- 
ing wood  which,  as  generations  of  forests  lived  and  died, 
were  deposited  upon  it. 

Danzig  is  the  chief  amber  market  of  the  world,  and  near 
the  shores  of  the  Baltic  to  the  east  of  the  city  most  of 
the  world's  product  is  obtained.  In  one  small  town  not 
far  from  Danzig  nearly  all  the  inhabitants  are  engaged  in 
the  amber  industry.  We  should  find  a  visit  there  very 
interesting,  for  amber  fishing  is  different  from  any  other 
fishing.  It  is  after  the  heavy  storms  that  the  amber  fisher- 
man reaps  his  greatest  harvest,  for  the  waves  and  the  winds 
do  part  of  his  work.  The  sand  and  bowlders  are  loosened 
from   their   beds   and   roll  up   and   down  in  the   shallow 


THE  COUNTRY  OF  POLAND         263 

waters.  The  fishermen  wade  out  almost  up  to  theu-  shoul- 
ders and,  using  their  nets  or  long-pronged  forks,  pull 
great  masses  of  seaweed  in  shore.  These  are  passed  on  to 
the  women,  who  examine  them  to  see  if  any  pieces  of 
amber  may  be  entangled^ 

After  the  winds  and  the  waters  are  more  quiet  the  Baltic 
fishers  go  out  in  their  boats  with  dredges,  which  they  drag 
along  the  bed  of  the  sea.  These  become  filled  with  seaweed 
and  stones,  among  which  small  pieces  of  amber  may  be  con- 
cealed.   To  recover  the  larger  masses,  divers  are  employed. 

While  these  men  are  fishing  for  amber  in  the  depths  of 
the  ocean  other  men  on  land  are  searching  for  it  m  mines. 
The  amber  is  brought  to  the  surface,  separated  from  the 
rock  which  incloses  it,  and  sent  to  the  quaint  old  city  of 
Danzig  to  be  cut  and  polished. 

One  of  the  minerals  found  in  Poland  in  large  quantities 
is  salt,  and  some  of  the  mines  where  salt  is  obtained  are 
among  the  most  interesting  in  the  world.  But  before  we 
visit  them  let  us  think  for  a  few  minutes  about  this  most 
useful  product.  What  should  we  do  without  it  ?  It  is  so 
common  and  so  cheap  that  we  do  not  appreciate  its  value. 
If  we  were  to  be  deprived  of  it  for  a  long  time,  however, 
we  should  realize  how  necessary  it  is  to  our  health  and 
to  our  enjoyment  of  food.  Where  it  is  scarce  people  will 
often  exchange  their  most  valued  possessions  for  a  little 
of  it.  In  some  regions  it  is  used  for  money,  wliile  in  other 
places  the  most  cordial  greeting  one  can  give  is  the  offer 
of  a  small  piece  of  salt. 

Salt  has  many  uses  aside  from  seasoning  food.  It  is 
used  in  preserving  fish  and  meats,  in  curing  hides  and 
skins,  and  in  making  butter  and  cheese.    It  is  necessary  in 


264 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 


other  manufactures,  especially  in  those  of  washing,  cleaning, 
and  baking  powders,  dyestuffs  and  extracts,  soap,  glass, 
fertilizers,  and  fireworks. 

In  what  form  is  salt  found  and  how  is   it  obtained  ? 
Mother  Nature   usually  furnish^  very   plentifully  those 

things  which  are  neces- 
sary to  life,  and  in  the 
supply  of  salt  she  has 
been  very  generous,  for 
it  is  found  in  great 
quantities  not  only  in 
the  earth  but  in  the 
ocean  water  too.  You 
know  how  salt  a  mouth- 
ful of  sea  water  tastes. 
It  is  estimated  that,  on 
an  average,  a  hundred 
pounds  of  sea  water,  if 
evaporated,  would  yield 
about  three  pounds  of 
salt.  The  ocean  is  the 
final  home  of  nearly  all 
the  thousands  of  rivers 
that  flow  over  the  earth's 
surface.  Journeying  through  the  long  ages  they  collect  from 
the  soil  and  hold  in  their  waters  great  quantities  of  mineral 
matter.  Salt  is  one  of  the  most  important  of  these  minerals, 
and  the  accumulated  loads  of  centuries  are  deposited  in  the 
ocean  depths,  there  to  remain  increasing  with  the  passing 
years.  Only  the  pure,  fresh  water  evaporates,  and  therefore 
the  ocean  is  slowly  but  constantly  growing  more  salty. 


Fig.  108. 


)  Underwood  &  Underwood 

Large  Quantities  of  Salt 
are  required 


THE  COUNTRY  OF  POLAXD 


2G5 


During  the  long,  long  ages  since  the  ocean  first  existed, 
such  enormous  quantities  of  salt  have  been  carried  to  it 
that  to-day,  if  it  could  be  extracted  and  piled  up,  it  would 


©  UnduruuL-l  i;  UuderwcoU. 

Fig.  109.    The  Water  is  led  into  Shallow,  Artificial  Ponds 

cover  the  vrhole  continent  of  Europe  with  a  layer  consider- 
ably deeper  than  the  height  of  the  highest  mountains. 

In  many  warm  countries  where  the  heat  of  the  sun  makes 
evaporation  rapid,  the   people  obtain   much  of  their  salt 


266 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES —  EUROPE 


©  Underwood  &  Underwood 

Fig.  110.    "The   Salt  crystallizes  on  the  Bed  and  Banks.   It  is 
then  raked  up  and  stored  in  piles  " 

supply  from  the  ocean.  At  high  tide  the  water  is  led 
through  pipes  or  channels  into  shallow,  artificial  ponds. 
Evaporation  takes  place  rapidly,  and  as  the  brine  becomes 
stronger   it  is  led   to   a   still    more    shallow  pond.    This 


THE  COUNTRY  OF  POLAND         267 

process  is  continued  in  several  pools  until,  in  the  last 
one,  the  salt  crystallizes  on  the  bed  and  banks.  It  is  then 
raked  up  and  stored  in  piles  for  the  sun  and  rain  and  air 
to  purify  and  whiten  it.  In  some  places  it  is  redissolved 
and  again  evaporated  by  artificial  heat  to  obtain  a  finer 
grade  of  salt. 

Inland  countries  of  ten.  produce  greater  quantities  of  salt 
than  those  which  border  on  the  ocean.  Let  us  see  how  this 
can  be. 

In  many  places  there  once  existed  rivers,  lakes,  or  arms 
of  the  ocean  whose  waters  long  ages  ago  evaporated,  leav- 
ing deposits  of  salt  in  their  dry  beds.  Changes  of  the 
earth's  surface  have  buried  these  deposits  under  deep  masses 
of  soil  and  rock,  and  the  salt  has  in  time  become  as  hard  as 
coal.  This  formation  is  called  rock  salt,  and  it  is  from  such 
deposits  that  most  of  the  world's  supply  comes.  The  easiest 
way  to  obtain  salt  and  tlie  one  most  used  to-day  is  by  brine 
wells.  A  pipe  is  driven  into  the  salt  deposit,  and  water  is 
forced  down  to  dissolve  it.  A  strong  brine  is  thus  formed 
which  is  pumped  to  the  surface  and  there  evaporated  either 
by  the  sun  or  by  artificial  heat,  leaving  the  crystallized  salt 
in  the  pans.  In  some  of  the  most  up-to-date  salt  works  a 
double-tube  pipe  is  driven,  through  the  outer  opening  of 
which  the  fresh  water  is  forced  down  while  the  brine  is 
pumped  out  through  the  inner  one. 

Salt  is  sometimes  obtained  from  natural  brine  springs. 
Underground  water  percolating  through  the  soil  has  col- 
lected in  the  salt  deposits  and  has  formed  a  strong  brine, 
which  is  pumped  out  and  evaporated,  as  in  the  brine  wells. 

A  third  method  of  obtaining  salt  is  by  mining,  which 
is  carried   on   in  a  manner  not  very  different  from  the 


268  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 

mining  of  coal.  To  see  something  of  this  method  of  pro- 
duction we  will  visit  the  largest  and  most  beautiful  salt 
mine  m  the  world. 

A  few  miles  from  Krakow  is  the  little  town  of  Wieliczka, 
wliich  is  built  on  the  roofs  of  the  great  salt  caverns  beneath. 
These  deposits  are  among  the  most  wonderful  in  the  world. 
The  beds  are  nearly  a  quarter  of  a  mile  thick  m  places  and 
extend  beneath  the  surface  for  a  distance  equal  to  that 
between  London  and  Cologne  or  between  New  York  and 
Buffalo.  The  mines  here  have  been  worked  for  nearly 
seven  hundred  years  and  at  one  time  were  the  chief  source 
of  revenue  of  the  Polish  kings. 

As  we  ride  through  the  village  of  Wieliczka  we  see  few 
men,  for  they  are  all  at  work  below  the  surface  of  the 
earth,  whither  we  will  follow  them. 

We  can  descend  into  tlie  mine  either  by  elevators  or 
by  a  grand  staircase  carved  out  of  the  solid  salt.  As  we 
wish  to  go  to  the  lowest  floor  of  this  seven-storied  cave, 
we  choose  the  elevator,  which  drops  us  quickly  through 
the  nine  hundred  feet  to  the  deepest  levels  of  the  mine. 
We  pause  for  a  moment  at  the  foot  of  the  elevator  before 
we  begin  our  tour,  and  try  to  realize  that  we  are  more 
than  a  sixth  of  a  mile  below  the  surface  of  the  earth.  The 
air  seems  cool  and  singularly  fresh  and  invigorating.  We 
are  told  that  it  remains  at  about  the  same  temperature 
during  the  entire  year,  and  that  it  is  very  healthful. 

As  we  wander  through  the  great  galleries,  with  the  roof 
and  walls  of  solid  salt,  we  wonder  how  such  great  tunnels 
and  rooms  have  ever  been  made.  It  has  taken  centuries 
to  do  it,  for  peasants  have  been  working  in  this  under- 
ground world  for  more  than  six  hundred  and  fifty  years. 


THE  COUNTRY  OF  POLAND  269 

Formerly  all  the  supporting  columns  were  of  salt,  but  now 
many  of  these  have  been  wholly  or  partially  removed  and 
wooden  supports  substituted. 

The  gallery  in  which  we  are  walking  suddenly  opens 
out  into  a  magnificent  ballroom.  A  ballroom  in  a  mine  ? 
Impossible !  Nevertheless  it  is  true,  and  furthermore  it  is 
not  only  in  a  salt  mine,  but  it  is  made  entirely  of  salt ! 
A  ballroom  three  hundred  feet  long,  ninety  feet  high,  with 
a  dull-gray  ceiling,  glistening  pillars,  and  flashing  chan- 
deliers all  of  hard,  crystalline  salt !  Can  you  imagine  a 
chandelier  thirty  feet  high  and  sixty  feet  in  circumfer- 
ence, all  gleaming  and  glittering  as  the  lights  fall  on  the 
sparkling  white  surfaces  ? 

Statues  carved  from  salt,  representing  Vulcan,  Neptune, 
and  other  mythological  and  historical  persons,  ornament 
this  magnificent  room,  and  a  gleaming  throne  has  been 
erected  at  one  end.  Real  balls  are  held  here  from  time  to 
time.  What  else  is  a  ballroom  for?  Whenever  an  old 
working  is  closed  or  a  new  street  opened  the  event  is 
celebrated  in  true  Galician  style.  Peasant  women  from 
the  village  above  dance  with  the  miners  to  the  sound  of 
shrill  pipes  and  noisy  violins,  whose  music  is  magnified  a 
hundred  times  by  the  wonderful  echoes  of  the  cavern. 

Only  a  short  distance  from  the  ballroom  is  a  cathedral 
which  is  fully  as  magnificent.  Here  is  the  great  organ,  and 
the  high  altar  with  its  crucifix,  its  twisted  pillars,  and  its 
statues  of  saints  carved  in  pure,  glistening  white.  Near  by  are 
the  figures  of  two  monks  made  from  blocks  of  ruby-red  salt. 

Leaving  the  cathedral  we  walk  on  through  several  streets 
to  a  room  two  hundred  feet  long.  This  contains  two  im- 
mense pp-amids  carved  and  ornamented  in  commemoration 


270  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES —  EUROPE 

of  a  visit  of  the  emperor  and  empress  of  Austria-Hungary 
when  this  part  of  Poland  belonged  to  that  empire. 

One  of  the  most  thrilling  adventures  for  visitors  is  a 
sail  on  the  black  waters  of  the  lake  far  in  the  depths  of 
the  mine.  Our  boat  holds  about  twenty-five  people,  and 
the  man  in  charge  pulls  it  along  by  means  of  ropes  which 
extend  across  the  lake.  The  water  is  like  strong  brine  — 
no  fish  ever  swam  in  it,  no  bird  ever  came  to  drink  from 
it.  The  torches  fastened  into  the  crystal  walls  throw  a 
weird  light  out  over  the  black  water,  and  the  splashing 
made  by  the  boat  is  echoed  and  reechoed  from  point  to 
point  along  the  walls.  The  flickering  shadows,  the  strange 
echoes,  the  awful  solitude,  and  the  deep,  black  water  be- 
neath us  make  us  shudder,  and  we  are  glad  to  step  from 
the  boat  to  the  solid  rock  again. 

But  what  about  the  miners  ?  They  are  the  peasants  of 
the  region  around  and  have  worked  in  the  mine  all  their 
lives.  There  are  several  hundred  of  them,  and  they  mine 
two  or  three  hundred  million  pounds  of  salt  annually.  This 
amount  might  be  much  increased  by  the  use  of  modern 
methods  and  up-to-date  machinery. 

The  salt  industry  in  Germany  is  important  and  its  history 
is  very  interesting.  Ages  ago  a  large  portion  of  Germany 
was  covered  by  the  ocean  waters,  and  in  the  course  of  time, 
as  these  grew  more  and  more  shallow,  great  quantities 
of  salt  were  deposited.  Before  the  middle  of  the  last  cen- 
tury the  production  of  salt  was  too  small  to  supply  the 
demand,  and  the  Prussian  government  undertook  some 
borings  in  the  search  for  new  deposits.  At  one  place  near 
the  Elbe  River,  after  boring  for  more  than  eight  hundred 
feet,  salt  formations  were  reached,  but  to  the  disappointment 


THE  COUXTRY  OF  POLAND         271 

of  those  in  charge  they  were  found  to  be  not  pure  salt  but 
what  is  known  as  potassium  salts.  At  that  time  these  were 
supposed  to  be  worthless,  so  the  borings  were  abandoned  and 
a  further  search  was  made  a  few  miles  away.  Here  more 
potassium  salts  were  found,  but  on  boring  deeper,  rich  beds 
of  pure  salt  also  were  discovered.  Further  work  with  the 
first  deposits  showed  this  to  be  true  in  that  locality  also. 

The  potassium  salts  were  thrown  out  as  waste  material, 
and  the  rock  salt  was  mined  for  some  years.  Fmall}-  the 
waste  piles  became  so  large  that  they  interfered  with  the 
working  of  the  mine.  The  superintendent  then  began  some 
experiments  to  see  if  he  could  discover  any  uses  which 
could  be  made  of  the  potassium  salts.  To  his  surprise 
he  found  that  they  contained  substances  very  useful  in 
fertilizers,  in  medicines,  in  photography,  and  in  various 
manufactures ;  so  valuable,  indeed,  were  the  products  ob- 
tained that  in  less  than  twelve  years  thirty -two  factories 
were  in  operation.  Potassium  salts  have  been  for  some  years 
one  of  the  most  important  products  of  Germany,  and  many 
tons  of  manufactures  worth  millions  of  dollars  are  made 
from  them. 

In  both  England  and  Germany  salt  is  obtamed  from 
mines,  from  natural  brine  springs  and  from  brine  wells. 
France  obtains  some  salt  from  these  sources,  but  most 
of  her  large  supply  comes  from  the  evaporation  of  ocean 
water. 

We  have  said  that  the  United  States  is  the  greatest  salt- 
producing  country  of  the  world.  The  mineral  is  obtained 
in  several  ways  —  by  mining,  by  pumping  from  brine  springs 
and  brine  wells,  by  evaporating  ocean  water,  and  by  collect- 
ing that  already  deposited  in  the  dry  beds  of  salt  lakes. 


272  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES —  EUROPE 

By  far  the  greatest  part  of  the  enormous  quantity  of 
salt  produced  in  our  country  is  obtained  from  brine  wells, 
where  the  fresh  water  which  is  let  into  the  salt  deposit 
dissolves  all  the  mineral  possible  and  is  then  pumped  up 
again  as  a  strong  brine.  The  evaporation  of  the  brine  is 
carried  on  in  a  scientific  way,  for  the  kind  of  salt  produced 
depends  upon  the  speed  with  which  it  is  done.  When  the 
evaporation  is  slow  the  grains  are  large  and  coarse,  and 
they  grow  finer  in  proportion  as  the  heat  is  increased  and 
the  process  hastened. 

Among  the  many  uses  of  salt  the  curing  of  fish  is  very 
important.  Were  it  not  for  some  such  method  of  preserv- 
ing fish,  it  would  not  be  possible  to  furnish  this  cheap, 
nourishing  food  to  inland  portions  of  Europe,  and  the 
peasants  would  be  deprived  of  a  staple  article  of  diet  on 
w^hich  they  are  dependent.  Our  next  visit  will  take  us  to 
some  of  the  most  important  fishing  countries,  where  the 
industry  furnishes  occupation  for  many  of  the  people. 

TOPICS  FOR  STUDY 

I 

1.  History  of  Poland. 

2.  The  old  city  of  Krakow. 

3.  Warsaw  and  its  industries. 

4.  The  effect  of  the  World  War  on  Poland. 

5.  The  seaport  of  Danzig. 

6.  The  story  of  amber. 

7.  Uses  of  salt. 

8.  Salt  in  the  ocean. 

9.  Methods  of  obtaining  salt. 

10.  The  salt  mines  of  Wieliczka. 

11.  Potassium  salts  in  Germany. 

12.  The  United  States  product. 


THE  COUNTRY  OF  POLAND 


273 


II 

1.  Sketch  a  map  of  Poland.  Write  the  names  of  the  countries 
which  bound  it.    Show  its  cities. 

2.  Find  the  names  of  some  famous  Pole.s.  For  what  are  they  noted  ? 

3.  Write  a  list  of  the  uses  of  salt. 

4.  Account  for  the  saltness  of  ocean  water. 

5.  Name  the  countries  which  produce  the  most  salt. 

6.  AVhat  are  the  most  important  salt-i^roducing  states  of  the 
United  States? 

Ill 

Be  able  to  spell  and  pronounce  the  following  names.  Locate  each 
place  and  tell  what  was  said  of  it  in  this  and  in  any  previous  chapter. 
Add  other  facts  if  possible. 


Austria-Hungary 

Buffalo 

Venice 

Brazil 

Cologne 

Warsaw 

England 

Danzig 

Wieliczka 

France 

Krakow 

Galicia 

Lodz 

Baltic  Sea 

Germany 

London 

Carpathian  Moun 

Russia 

New  York 

tains 

Scandinavia 

Paris 

Elbe  River 

United  States 

St.  Louis 

Vistula  River 

CHAPTER  XV 

A  TRIP  TO   NORWAY  AND  THE  FISHING  GROUNDS 

OF  EUROPE 

In  the  northern  part  of  Europe  lies  the  long,  narrow 
country  of  Norway,  stretching  from  the  desolate,  frozen 
north  to  a  latitude  somewhat  farther  south  than  Petro- 
grad,  Russia,  or  Sitka,  Alaska.  Forests  of  pine,  spruce, 
and  birch  trees  cover  one  fourth  of  its  area.  The  largest 
glaciers  of  Europe  fill  its  mountain  passes.  Hundreds  of 
waterfalls  splash  in  the  sunsliine.  Thousands  of  lakes  lie 
in  the  valleys.  Deep  bays,  called  fiords,  fringe  its  coast  and 
penetrate  in  some  places  a  hundred  miles  into  the  interior. 
On  either  side  of  these  inlets  bare,  rocky  walls  rise  per- 
pendicularly to  a  height  of  two  thousand  feet  or  more, 
and  extend  for  an  equal  distance  below  the  surface  of  the 
blue  water.  One  eighth  of  the  whole  population  of  Nor- 
way lives  on  the  one  hundred  fifty  thousand  islands  which 
dot  its  shores.  These  vary  in  size  from  those  only  a  few 
feet  across  to  some  nearly  as  large  as  the  state  of  Rhode 
Island. 

Norway  is  smaller  than  California,  yet  its  complete  coast- 
luie  measured  in  all  its  irregularity  would,  if  extended  in 
a  straight  line,  reach  halfway  around  the  world  at  the 
equator.  In  the  northern  part  of  this  strange  country  for 
a  period  of  nearly  two  months  during  the  summer  the  sun 
never  sets.    Even  in  the  southern  portion  one  can  read  by 

274 


A  TRIP  TO  NORWAY 


275 


)  Underwood  Si  Underwood 

Fig,  111.    "Deep  Bays,  called  Fiords,  fringe  its  Coast" 

its  light  at  ten  o'clock  in  the  evening.  In  the  winter 
there  are  several  weeks  when  the  people  of  the  northern 
towns  do  not  see  the  sun  at  all.  The  long,  cold  night  is 
made  radiant  by  the  glittering  stars  and  by  the  northern 


27t)  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 

lights,  which  gleam  and  flash  and  sparkle  and  send  long 
rays  of  light  streaming  up  to  the  very  zenith. 

If  upon  a  map  of  the  United  States  you  should  place  one  of 
Norway,  with  its  most  northern  point  upon  the  city  of  New 
York,  its  southern  end  would  reach  nearly  to  the  southern 
extremity  of  Florida,  It  is  so  narrow,  however,  that  the  very 
widest  part  from  east  to  west  would  not  reach  from  New 
York  to  Buffalo.  As  Norway  borders  upon  the  ocean  for  its 
entire  length  of  eleven  hundred  miles,  many  of  the  people 
find  employment  on  the  water  instead  of  on  the  land. 

The  old  Norse  sagas  tell  us  that  more  than  a  thousand 
years  ago  brilliantly  painted  ships  with  gay-colored  sails 
carried  fish  from  Norway  to  England.  Though  the  ships 
of  to-day  differ  from  those  of  ancient  times,  and  the  sails 
lack  the  bright  colors,  they  still  carry  to  Great  Britain  the 
product  of  the  Norwegian  fisheries.  The  annual  sales 
amount  to  millions  of  dollars.  So  important  and  valuable 
is  the  fishing  industry  to  Norway  that  one  tenth  of  the 
national  income  is  derived  from  the  fish  exports. 

Cod,  herring,  and  mackerel  are  caught  in  the  greatest 
numbers  —  more  than  sbcty  million  cod  being  taken  annu- 
ally. Haddock,  sole,  flounder,  and  other  varieties  are  also 
plentiful,  while  from  the  cold  arctic  waters,  whales  and 
seals  are  obtained.  In  the  late  winter  and  early  spring  be- 
tween forty  and  fifty  thousand  Norwegians  find  employ- 
ment in  the  cod  fisheries,  which  are  carried  on  chiefly  from 
the  Lofoten  Islands.  As  we  approach  these  islands  in  a 
steamer  we  see,  rising  abruptly  from  the  sea,  long  hues  of 
bare  mountains  with  sharp  peaks,  and  with  snow  patches 
on  their  slopes.  The  land  looks  cold  and  desolate,  and  it 
is  indeed  a  lonely,  barren  waste. 


A  TRIP  TO  NORWAY 


277 


Alono-  the  shores  on  many  of  the  islands  we  notice 
groups  of  low,  dark  houses.  These  are  the  stations  from 
which  fisliing  is  carried  on.  Some  of  the  buildings  are 
warehouses  of  traders,  some  are  storehouses  for  the  fisliing 
tackle,  and  still  others  are  the  huts  for  the  fishermen.  They 
look  dreary  and  uncomfortable  to  our  eyes,  but  they  are 
a  welcome  sight  to  a  Norwegian  fishing  crew  who  have 
perhaps  been  bat- 
tling for  hours  with 
the  winter  storm. 

You  may  wonder 
why  the  men  fish  dur- 
ing the  awful  arctic 
winter  instead  of  in 
the  warm  season.  It 
is  at  that  time  that 
the  cod  leave  the 
waters  of  the  deep 
ocean  and  come  to 
the  shallows  nearer 
the  coast  to  lay  their 
eggs,  and  it  is  then 
that  the  greatest  catch  can  be  made.  Later,  in  April  or 
May,  the  fishing  is  carried  on  nearer  the  coast  of  Norway, 
whither  the  cod  go  for  food.  A  small  fish  called  the  cap- 
elin  frequents  the  coast  waters  at  that  time,  and  immense 
numbers  of  the  cod  follow  to  prey  upon  them. 

The  fishing  is  done  either  with  nets,  sometimes  more 
than  half  a  mile  long,  or  with  Imes  to  which  many  hundred 
short  lines  with  hooks  and  bait  are  attached.  A  catch  of 
three  or  four  hundred  cod  in  the  net  and  less  than  that 


-  Vv                              1 

©  Underwood  Sc  Underwood 

Fig.  112.    As  we  approach  these  Islands 
•WE    SEE  Long   Lines  of  Bare  Mountains 


278 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 


number  on  the  lines  is  considered  a  good  day's  work.  When 
the  fleet  reaches  shore  with  the  slippery  cargoes,  a  busy 
time  ensues.  Many  merchant  vessels  are  waiting  at  the 
docks  for  loads  of  fish,  and  the  bargaining  quickly  begins. 
Many  of  the  cod  are  salted  and  then  dried  on  the  flat  rocks 
near  the  shore.    The  heads,  bones,  intestines,  and  all  other 


Underwood  &  L'uderwooa 

Fig.  113.   More  of  the  Herring  than  of  Any  Other  Species  are 
caught  on  the  different  flshing  grounds  of  the  world  . 

parts  not  useful  for  food  are  made  into  fertilizer ;  the 
eggs,  called  roe,  are  sent  to  France  to  be  used  for  bait 
in  the  sardine  fisheries ;  the  livers  are  used  for  cod-liver 
oil,  thousands  of  barrels  of  this  medicinal  oil  being  made 
each  year  in  Norway. 

Next  in  importance  to  the  cod  fisheries  of  Norway  come 
those  of  herring  —  King  Herring,  it  is  sometimes  called, 
for  more  of  these  small  fish  than  of  any  other  species  are 


A  TRIP  TO  NORWAY  279 

caught  on  the  different  fishmg  grounds  of  the  world.  The 
Norwegian  herring  are  considered  the  best,  and  the  people 
of  Norway  might  live  on  them  the  whole  year  tlu-ough, 
for  the  product  of  their  fisheries  is  sufficient  to  give 
every  man,  woman,  and  child  in  the  country  one  third 
of  a  barrel  annually. 

The  herring  leave  the  deep  waters  of  the  ocean  twice 
every  year  and  are  caught  at  these  times  all  along  the 
western  coast  of  Norway.  A  few  are  exported  fresh,  but 
most  of  the  catch  is  either  salted  or  smoked.  The  poorer 
classes  in  nearly  every  European  country  eat  herring  in 
some  form,  for  they  are  not  only  a  cheap  food  but  a 
nourishing  one  as  well.  Many  of  the  people  of  Europe 
are  Catholics,  and  on  certain  days  do  not  eat  meat.  This 
is  one  of  the  reasons  why  the  Norwegian  sales  of  fish 
are  so  enormous.  The  extent  of  coastline,  the  great 
numbers  of  fish  which  come  to  these  waters,  the  large 
cities  situated  on  the  southern  shores  of  the  North  Sea 
which  serve  as  distributmg  centers  —  all  help  to  make 
the  fisheries  of  Norway  among  the  most  important  of 
the  world. 

The  fishmg  grounds  for  mackerel  lie  a  little  south  of 
the  region  where  cod  and  herring  are  most  plentiful,  and 
comparatively  few  are  caught  in  the  waters  north  of 
Trondhjem. 

Another  branch  of  the  fisliing  industry  is  that  carried  on 
in  the  Arctic  Ocean  for  seals  and  other  fur-bearing  animals, 
and  for  whales.  Norwegian  whalers  are  also  found  not 
only  in  different  parts  of  the  Arctic  Ocean,  but  in  the  far 
southern  waters  of  the  Antarctic  and  in  the  Pacific  as  well. 
The  catch  of  the  fleet  which  sailed  one  year  from  Tromso, 


280 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 


Vardo,  and  Haramerfest  included  several  thousand  seals, 
many  hundred  polar  bears,  whales,  reindeer,  foxes,  and  a 
few  musk  oxen. 

All  the  cities  on  the  western  coast  of  Norway  are  inter- 
ested in  the  fishing  industry  and  export  from  their  harbors 
large  quantities  of  fish  products.  Tromso  and  Hammerfest 
in  the  far  north  and  Trondhjem  and  Bergen  in  the  southern 
part  are  the  chief  centers.    The  harbors  of  these  places  are 

filled  with  vessels 
unloading  their  slip- 
pery cargoes,  while 
others  are  storing 
away  in  their  holds 
great  quantities  of 
salted,  smoked,  or 
canned  fish.  On  the 
shore  are  the  frames 
on    which    to    dry 


Underwood  &  Underwood 


Fig.  114.  "We  should  eat  Fish,  see  Fish, 

AND    SMELL    FiSH  " 


the  fish,  the  liouses 
for  curing,  packing, 
and  canning  it,  and 
the  factories  in  which  oil  and  fertilizer  are  prepared.  In 
such  fishing  centers  we  should  eat  fish,  see  fish,  and  smell 
fish  so  much  that  we  should  long  for  other  food  and  sights 
and  odors. 

Long  before  Columbus  discovered  America,  Bergen  was 
a  wealthy  city.  For  years  it  was  the  largest  in  Norway, 
and  was  then,  as  now,  the  center  of  the  fishing  industry. 
When  fishing  was  the  only  industry  of  importance  in 
Norway,  the  port  which  directed  and  controlled  the  trade 
naturally  became  the  largest  city.    Since  other  industries 


A  TRIP  TO  NORWAY 


281 


have  risen  in  importance,  other  cities  have  grown  in  pro- 
portion, and  Bergen  to-day  no  longer  holds  the  first  place. 
No  other  city,  however,  rivals  it  in  the  collecting  and 
sliipping  of  fish.     Vessels  loaded  with  cod,  herring,  and 


©  Keystone  View  Co. 

Tig.  115.    No  City  rivals  Bergen  in  the  Collecting  and 

Shipping  of  Fish 

mackerel  (pickled,  smoked,  and  salted),  sardines,  whale 
oil,  cod-liver  oil,  and  cod  roe  sail  from  the  harbor  to 
England,  Scotland,  Germany,  France,  and  other  countries. 
The  United  States  buys  every  year  from  Bergen  great 


282  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 

quantities  of  sardines  which,  together  with  our  purchases 
of  larger  fish,  oil,  and  other  articles,  are  worth  nearly  a 
million  dollars.  We  send  to  this  Norwegian  port  goods 
worth  many  times  that  amount,  principally  flour,  oatmeal, 
petroleum,  cottonseed  oil,  dried,  canned,  and  fresh  fruits, 
machinery,  tools,  and  meat. 

Though  Bergen  lies  as  far  north  as  central  Labrador, 
the  winter  is  not  very  cold  and  the  harbor  is  never  frozen. 
The  westerly  winds  bring  much  rain,  which  makes  the  cli- 
mate rather  disagreeable,  for  it  rains  or  snows  more  than 
half  of  the  year.  Grass,  grain,  flowers,  and  trees  flourish 
well  in  such  a  damp  climate,  and  the  abundant  moisture 
makes  the  country  much  more  beautiful  than  it  otherwise 
would  be. 

About  three  hundred  miles  north  of  Bergen  lies  the  old 
Norwegian  town  of  Trondhjem.  You.  thmk,  perhaps,  that  a 
town  as  far  north  as  southern  Iceland,  and  the  most  north- 
erly city  of  any  importance  in  the  world,  must  be  a  cold, 
disagreeable  place  with  no  modern  conveniences  and  with 
but  few  places  of  interest.  A  visit  to  Trondhjem  would 
change  your  opinion.  Soon  after  the  petty  kingdoms  of  the 
Norse  country  were  united  into  a  single  stat^,  Trondhjem 
was  made  the  capital  and  remained  such  for  many  years. 
All  the  kings  of  Norway  have  been  crowned  m  the  old 
cathedral  of  gray  stone.  The  brilliant  ceremonies  wliich 
took  place  in  1906  at  the  crowning  of  King  Haakon  VII 
and  Queen  Maud  were  held  within  its  walls. 

Trondhjem  contains  to-day  about  forty  thousand  peojDle, 
and  ranks  next  to  Christiania  and  Bergen  m  importance. 
With  the  exception  of  a  few  small  branch  lines,  it  is  the 
northern  terminus  of  the  Norwegian  railway  system,  and 


A  TRIP  TO  NORWAY  283 

contains  a  splendid  station  far  larger  and  finer  than  many 
a  more  southern  city  can  boast  of. 

The  streets  of  the  city  are  very  wide  and  well  paved.  On 
either  side  are  quaint  wooden  houses  with  red-tiled  roofs 
and  bright  patches  of  garden.  Around  the  city  are  fine 
walks  and  drives.  The  views  of  the  fiord  are  grand,  and 
in  the  near-by  hills  and  mountains  beautiful  waterfalls 
come  leaping  down  from  the  green  heights  above  to  the 
blue  waters  below. 

Like  the  other  cities  of  Norway  which  are  situated  on 
the  western  coast,  the  harbor  of  Trondhjem  is  a  busy  place. 
It  is  never  frozen,  though  the  harbors  on  the  opposite  side 
of  the  Scandinavian  peninsula,  in  the  Baltic  Sea,  are  closed 
to  commerce  for  many  weeks  each  year.  Immense  rafts  of 
lumber  lie  in  the  fiord  awaiting  their  turn  in  the  busy  saw- 
mills which,  with  the  buildings  for  the  salting,  curing,  and 
packing  of  fish,  line  the  shores. 

We  can  see  vessels  from  many  European  countries  being 
loaded  with  fish,  oil,  and  furs,  and  on  a  neighboring  island  is 
a  large  whale-oil  factory  which  advertises  itself  by  its  smell. 

As  we  walk  up  from  the  wharf  we  find  that  this  arc- 
tic town,  though  farther  north  than  Iceland,  has  hotels, 
churches,  a  telegraph  office,  schools,  and  a  bank.  The  main 
street  is  very  wide,  and  the  houses  even  in  this  far  northern 
town  are  gay  with  little  gardens  and  window  boxes.  The 
furs  offered  for  sale  are  very  attractive.  We  see  many  fine 
bearskins  and  wolfskins  and  some  warm  cloaks  of  eiderdown. 
Eider  ducks  are  very  plentiful  along  the  shores  of  Norway, 
and  the  down,  from  which  quilts,  muffs,  and  many  warm 
garments  'are  made,  is  obtained  from  their  nests.  The 
female  duck  plucks  the  down  from  her  own  body  to  Ime 


284  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  —  EUROPE 

her  nest  iii  order  that  the  young  birds  may  have  a  warm, 
comfortable  home.  Many  Norwegians  find  employment  in 
gathering  and  selling  the  down,  which  is  used  in  great 
quantities  in  these  northern  countries  and  is  exported 
also  to  those  farther  south. 

We  will  take  a  steamer  at  Trondhjem  for  places  farther 
north.  The  voyage  up  the  coast  is  a  pleasant  one,  as  the 
route  for  the  most  part  lies  behind  the  fringe  of  islands 
which  furnish  protection  from  the  rough  waters  of  the  open 
ocean.  The  scenery  is  grand.  Cliffs  hundreds  of  feet  high 
rise  almost  perpendicularly  on  either  side  of  the  long, 
narrow  fiords,  in  which  the  water  lies  deep  and  dark  in 
the  shadow.  The  first  stop  which  our  steamer  makes  is 
at  Tromso.  This  city  is  situated  upon  an  island  and  has 
a  fine  harbor  open  all  the  year.  In  the  street  we  meet 
some  short,  dirty,  greasy-looking  people  dressed  in  blouses 
made  of  rough,  coarse  cloth  or  of  reindeer  skin  with  the 
fur  inside.  These  people  are  Lapps.  They  live  outside 
the  town  and  come  in  during  the  summer  to  sell  to  the 
tourists  spoons  and  knives  fashioned  from  the  horns  of 
the  reindeer,  moccasins  like  those  which  they  are  wearing, 
and  bright-colored  caps. 

As  we  leave  Tromso  and  continue  our  way  northward 
the  country  grows  more  and  more  barren  and  desolate. 
Cliffs  gray  and  bare  rise  abruptly  from  the  water.  The 
shore  seems  uninhabited  save  for  the  gulls,  eider  ducks, 
and  other  sea  fowl  which,  alarmed  by  the  whistle  of  the 
steamer,  rise  in  swarms  from  the  rocks.  Our  next  stop  is 
at  Hammerfest,  the  most  northerly  town  in  the  world.  In 
this  bleak  arctic  town,  far  removed  from  the  land  of  trees, 
flowers,  and  warm  sunshine,  we  are  surprised  to  find  gay 


A  TRIP  TO  NORWAY  285 

geraniums  peeping  out  of  the  windows  of  the  rough  wooden 
houses.  This  touch  of  brightness  is  needed,  for  the  region 
is  dreary  and  desolate.  No  green  trees  relieve  the  somber 
gray  of  the  rocks  and  soil,  and  no  roads  stretch  away  from 
the  town  to  friendly  villages,  for  the  country  around  is  un- 
inhabited. During  the  long  wmter  months  no  visitors  come 
to  break  the  monotony  of  the  cold  and  darkness.  From 
Thanksgiving  time  to  the  latter  part  of  January  not  even 
the  sun  cheers  the  people  with  its  light  and  warmth.  The 
stars  glitter  in  the  cold  sky,  and  the  Aurora  Borealis  sends 
long  lines  of  rosy  light  far  up  toward  the  zenith,  but  every 
one  looks  forward  to  the  time  when  the  bright  yellow  rim 
of  the  sun  will  be  first  seen  at  noon,  just  peeping  for  a  mo- 
ment above  the  southern  horizon.  Every  day  it  rises  higher 
and  higher  until  the  middle  of  May,  when  it  describes  a 
complete  circle  in  the  sky,  higher  in  the  south  at  noon  and 
lower  in  the  north  at  midnight.  For  many  weeks  it  does 
not  go  below  the  horizon,  but  shines  continually  unless 
hidden  by  clouds.  It  is  hard  to  tell  when  to  go  to  bed  and 
when  to  get  up,  or  to  decide  whether  it  is  supper  or  break- 
fast one  is  eating.  Finally,  near  the  last  of  July  the  ball 
of  light  dips  for  a  moment  below  the  northern  horizon.  It 
is  lost  to  sight  each  night  for  an  increasing  length  of  time 
until  the  last  of  November,  when  it  disappears  entirely  for 
the  long  winter. 

The  houses  of  Hammerfest  are  close  to  the  shore  ;  behind 
the  town  rise  bare,  rocky  hills,  down  which  avalanches  of 
rock,  loosened  by  the  winds  and  storms,  roll  with  terrific 
force.  Most  of  the  tliree  thousand  inhabitants  of  Hammer- 
fest are  fishermen.  Near  their  homes  are  the  frames  for 
drying  the  fish  and  the  buildmgs  for  curing  and  packing  it, 


286 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 


and  a  fishy  smell  pervades  the  town.  In  the  harbor  are 
vessels  from  Russia,  Germany,  England,  and  other  Euro- 
pean countries.  One  is  unloadmg  coal,  another  wheat,  and 
others  are  taking  on  cargoes  of  fish  and  oil. 

In  one  part  of  the  town  we  notice  the  low  stone  huts  of 
a  Lapp  village,  and  in  the  stores  of  Hammerfest  we  see 


)  Keystone  View  Co. 

Fig.  116.    "The  Houses  of  Hammerfest  are  close  to  the  Shore" 


costumes,    furs,   moccasins,   carvings,   and    reindeer   skins 
.which  the  Laplanders  have  brought  in  to  sell. 

Leaving  the  town  of  Hammerfest  behind  us  we  steam 
farther  on  our  way  into  the  bleak,  drear  arctic  world.  On 
our  left  stretches  the  blue-gray  water ;  on  our  right  rise 
bare,  steep  cliffs,  from  the  summits  of  which  desolate 
plateaus  stretch  off  uito  the  distance,  brightened  by  no  sign 


A  TRIP  TO  NORWAY  287 

of  human  life.  The  cry  of  the  gulls  and  the  whuring  of 
the  wings  of  sea  birds  are  the  only  sounds  save  the  splash- 
ing of  water  agauist  the  prow  of  the  vessel. 

Seven  hours  after  leaving  Hammerfest  the  dark  gray 
promontory  called  the  North  Cape  comes  into  view,  stand- 
ing in  solitary  majesty,  with  its  bold  front  facing  the  wild 


Fig.  117     "  Thk  Dakk  Ukay  Pko-aioxtoky  called  the  North  Cape" 

waste  of  waters.  The  scene  reminds  us  of  the  words  in 
which  Longfellow  describes  this  lone  rock : 

So  far  I  live  to  the  northward 

No  man  lives  north  of  me ; 
To  the  east  are  wild  mountain  chains 
And  beyond  them  meres  and  plains ; 

To  the  westward  all  is  sea. 

The  promontory  is  about  a  thousand  feet  high  and  rises 
very  abruptly  from  the  water.  Tourists  who  visit  it  to  see 
the  midnight  sun  over  the  waste  of  northern  waters  have  to 


288  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 

climb  a  zigzag  path,  which  is  so  steep  in  places  that  ropes 
have  been  fastened  to  the  rock  to  assist  them.  From  the 
summit  there  is  absolutely  nothing  to  see  save  the  cold  sea, 
the  gray  sky,  and  the  bare  rock.  If  one  is  fortunate  enough 
to  arrive  on  a  clear  night,  his  long,  northward  trip  is  re- 
warded by  the  sight  of  the  sun  at  midnight,  a  golden  ball 
shining  low  down  m  the  sky  near  the  northern  horizon.  But 
clear  nights  are  rare,  and  many  a  disappointed  traveler 
returns  unrewarded  for  his  tiresome  climb. 

Though  so  many  Norwegians  spend  much  of  their  life 
upon  the  ocean,  many  more  are  employed  on  land.  Thou- 
sands are  engaged  in  lumbering  or  in  the  making  of  paper 
pulp,  for  the  forests  of  Norway,  you  remember,  cover 
nearly  one  fourth  of  its  surface.  The  country  is  so  moun- 
tainous, lies  so  far  north,  and  is  so  rugged  and  barren  that 
comparatively  little  of  the  land  is  adapted  for  farming, 
yet  the  arable  portion  is  divided  into  farms  so  small  that 
more  people  are  engaged  in  agriculture  than  in  any  other 
occupation. 

Hay  is  the  most  important  crop.  The  farmer  is  dependent 
on  his  cows  for  milk,  butter,  and  cheese.  The  winters  are 
long  and  cold,  and  great  quantities  of  hay  are  needed  to 
feed  the  cattle  until  the  coming  of  summer.  Each  nook 
and  corner,  each  steep  slope  and  sheltered  valley,  yields 
its  small  harvest  to  the  thrifty  Norwegian.  The  first  mow- 
ing is  done  with  a  scythe,  but  the  second  crop  is  so  short 
that  it  is  cut  with  a  kind  of  sickle.  Everybody  works  in 
the  hayfields  —  men  and  women,  boys  and  girls.  In  the 
western  part  of  the  country  the  season  is  so  damp  that  the 
grass  is  hung  on  long  poles  to  dry,  as  you  see  in  the  pic- 
ture, instead  of  being  left  on  the  ground.    On  hillsides  too 


A  TRIP  TO  NORWAY 


289 


steep  for  horses  to  draw,  loads,  the  grass  is  tied  up  with 
ropes  into  huge  bundles.  Below,  on  the  steep  slope,  a  man 
stands  ready  to  receive  it  on  his  slioulders.  One  of  the 
haymakers  rolls  it  onto  his  back  and  down  the  hill  he  goes, 
completely  covered  by  the  huge  pile  of  hay,  which  looks  as 
if  it  were  slowly  moving  down  of  its  own  accord.  Some- 
times a  stout  wire  is  stretched  from  some  high  slope  to  the 


I  Underwood  it  Underwood 

Fig.  118.  "The  Grass  is  hung  on  Long  Poles  to  dry" 


valley  below.  The  hay  is  tied  up  in  bundles,  fastened  to 
rings  on  the  wire,  and  sent  whizzing  on  this  ''  hay -trolley 
Ime  "  down  to  the  farm. 

Though  nearly  every  farmer  owns  cows,  we  see  but  few 
of  them  m  our  summer  tour  through  the  country.  As  in 
Switzerland,  they  are  driven  to  the  high  hills  and  the 
mountains  to  remain  through  the  warm  weather.  If  they 
were  fed  in  the  valley  during  the  summer  months  there 
would  be  little  grass  left  to  make  into  hay  for  their  winter 


290 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES —  EUROPE 


food.  Ten,  twenty,  or  even  fifty,  miles  from  the  farm,  in 
some  sheltered  place  in  the  mountains,  is  the  sceter^  or 
dairy  house.  It  is  built  of  logs  or  of  rough  stones,  and 
there,  during  the  summer,  the  people  from  the  valley  come 
to  pasture  their  cattle  and  goats  on  the  scanty  grass. 


H 

1 

^ 

K^'-j 

2^^ 

■^ 

— =-■        -^          ^ 

Fig.  119.    "In   Some   Sheltered  Place   in  the  Mountains  is  the 
S^TBjt,  OR  Dairy  House" 

On  some  pleasant  June  morning  every  one  at  the  farm 
is  busy,  for  on  that  day  the  cattle  are  to  be  driven  to  the 
sceter.  Many  things  must  be  packed  for  the  trip  —  the  milk 
pails,  the  churn,  the  cheese  presses,  coffee,  bread,  warm 
blankets,  a  few  dishes,  a  frying  pan,  and  many  other 
necessary  articles.  Bells  are  tied  to  the  necks  of  the 
cows,  and  the  mark  of  the  owner  is  fastened  into  the  ears 


A  TRIP  TO  NORWAY 


291 


ifi)  Underwood  Si  Uuderwood 

Fig.  120.    "The  Norwegian  Housewife  bakes  her  Fladbkod  only 
Three  or  Four  Times  a  Year" 

of  the  sheep  and  the  goats.  They  will  wander  many  miles 
on  the  mountains,  and  perchance  become  mixed  with  the 
herds  of  other  farmers. 

If  you  were  going  away  for  the  summer  you  would  hardly 
expect  to  take  with  you  bread  enough  to  last  until  you 


292  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  —  EUROPE 

return,  but  the  Norwegian  housewife  bakes  \\e.v  fladhrod  only 
three  or  four  times  a  year.  She  makes  a  dough  of  water 
mixed  with  rye  meal  and  barley,  and  rolls  this  into  round, 
flat  cakes  perhaps  as  large  over  as  the  bottom  of  a  pail  or 
a  small  washtub.  This  is  baked  over  the  fire  and  then  put 
away  to  last  through  the  coming  months.  It  is  not  eaten 
until  it  is  some  days  or  weeks  old.  It  is  hard  and  not  Yevy 
appetizing,  but  it  is  wholesome  and  nourishmg,  and  the 
people  thrive  well  on  it  with  then  other  simple  food.  Milk, 
usuall}^  sour  and  changed  to  a  firm  mass  as  thick  as  blanc- 
mange, and  porridge  are  often  found  on  the  tables  of  the 
poorer  classes,  who  eat  also  a  great  deal  of  fresh,  salted, 
and  smoked  fish. 

The  boys  and  girls  at  the  sceter  find  plenty  to  do  to  keep 
them  busy  during  the  long,  bright  summer  days.  They 
watch  the  cattle,  drive  them  to  new  pastures  when  necessary, 
and  call  them  home  when  they  stray  by  blowing  on  a  long, 
birch-bark  horn.  They  make  butter  and  cheese,  and  in  then* 
few  spare  minutes  knit  Avarm  socks  and  mittens,  which  the}" 
will  need  during  the  winter.  The  people  at  home  on  the 
farm  seldom  visit  the  sceter^  for  they  are  too  busy  haying 
and  the  distance  is  too  great ;  so  the  whole  summer  passes 
with  only  one  or  two  trips  from  the  home  people,  who 
come  to  bring  provisions  and  to  carry  back  the  butter  and 
cheese  and  perhaps  some  small  bundles  of  hay.  The  life 
is  a  lonely  one,  and  the  boys  and  girls  are  glad  when  the 
time  comes  to  pack  up  the  things  and  to  start  the  cows 
and  goats  down  the  steep  path  toward  home. 

We  do  not  wish  to  leave  this  northern  land  without 
a  peep  at  its  capital,  Christiania.  This  city  is  finely 
situated  at  the  head  of  a  fiord  sixty  miles  long.    To  the 


A  TRIP  TO  NORWAY 


293 


north  are  high  wooded  hills,  beautifully  green  in  summer 
and  covered  with  snow  in  winter.  These  afford  splendid 
opportunities  for  tobogganing,   skiing,   and   other  sports. 


©  Keystone  View  Co. 

Fig.  121.   "We  do  not  wish  to  leave  this  Northern  Land  with- 
out A  Peep  at  its  Capital,  Christiania  " 

The  city  is  clean  and  well  built  and  the  people  live  in 
a  healthy,  happy  way,  enjoying  their  homes  and  their  home 
hfe.  They  show  the  kindly,  honest  disposition  which  is 
characteristic  of  Norwegian  folk. 


294 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  —  EUROPE 


The  winter  sports  in  Christiania  are  very  enjoyable,  and 
every  one,  old  and  young,  takes  part  in  them.  There  are 
skating  and  sleighing  parties  and  fine  opportunities  for 
coastuig.    Horses  draw  the  people  and  the  heavy  sleds  to 


Fig.  122.    Skiing  in  Norway 

the  tops  of  the  long  hills,  and  the  merry  coasters  come  flying 
down  the  steep  slopes,  which  are  often  four  or  five  miles  long. 
Norwegians  are  very  expert  on  snowshoes.  The  skis,  as 
they  call  them,  are  from  four  to  seven  feet  long  and  from 
three  to  five  inches  wide.    If  you  should  try  a  stand-up 


A  TRIP  TO  NORWAY 


295 


slide  downhill  with  them  fastened  securely  to  your  feet, 
you  would  very  likely  get  a  tumble  before  you  reached  the 
bottom;  but  a  Norwegian  boy  guides  himself  very  easily 
and  comes  down  the  steep  hills  at  a  terrific  pace,  showing 


Fig.   123.    When   going   at  Full  Speed  he   sometimes   leaps  into 
THE  Air  out  over  the  Tops  of  the  Trees 


great  skill  in  dodging  trees  and  rocks.  When  going  at  full 
speed  he  sometimes,  when  coming  to  a  sudden  drop  in  the 
hillside,  leaps  into  the  air  out  over  the  tops  of  the  trees  on 
the  slope  below.  We  watch  breathlessly,  expecting  a  mishap 


296  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 

when  he  touches  the  ground  again,  but  he  lands  safely  on 
his  ski  and  continues  his  slide  to  the  bottom  of  the  hill. 

We  must  leave  Norway,  however,  and  visit  some  of  the 
other  countries  where  fishmg  is  carried  on  to  a  great  extent. 
Little  Japan  ranks  first  in  this  industry,  while  the  United 
States,  England,  and  Russia  are  important  fishing  coun- 
tries. In  Great  Britain  the  services  of  nearly  a  hundred 
thousand  men  and  between  twenty-five  and  thirty  thousand 
vessels  are  needed  to  carry  on  the  industry.  Even  the 
secondary  industries  connected  with  the  ocean  harvests, 
such  as  the  importation  of  the  ice  and  salt  for  preserving 
the  fish,  are  of  great  importance.  Every  week  day  sev- 
eral thousand  tons  of  fish  are  carried  ashore  to  the  fishing 
centers  along  the  coast.  This  immense  quantity  is  packed, 
salted,  cured,  and  distributed  over  the  island  kingdom  and 
sent  to  other  countries  as  well.  London  is  an  important 
center,  receiving  and  distributing  daily  many  tons  of  fish. 
Billingsgate,  the  famous  fish  market  of  London,  is  the 
largest  in  the  world.  The  best  time  to  see  it  is  early  in 
the  morning,  when  the  fish  dealers  of  London  come  to  buy 
their  daily  supplies.  From  the  noise,  the  confusion,  and 
the  piles  of  fish  you  would  surely  think  that  all  Europe 
was  quarreling  over  its  Friday  dinner. 

Hull,  Grimsby,  and  Yarmouth,  on  the  eastern  coast  of 
England,  are  important  fishing  centers.  Thousands  of  ves- 
sels sail  from  these  places  to  the  fishing  grounds  of  the 
North  Sea.  They  may  be  gone  for  a  few  days  or  for  a  few 
weeks,  or  they  may  never  return.  The  news  from  a  fishing 
fleet  after  a  severe  storm  reminds  one  of  the  news  from  an 
army  after  a  battle.  The  life  is  hard,  but  it  develops  strong, 
brave  men,  many  of  whom  become  sailors  in  the  British  navy. 


A  TRIP  TO  XORWAY  297 

Grimsby  is  one  of  the  most  important  of  the  English 
fishing  towns.  One  of  the  American  consuls  in  England 
describes  as  follows  a  scene  on  the  wharf  at  Grimsby 
when  the  vessels  come  in  loaded  with  fish : 

No  sooner  has  the  last  knock  of  the  auctioneer's  hammer  betokened 
the  successful  bidder  than  the  fishermen  are  busy  swinging  the  bas- 
kets of  herring  from  their  vessel  to  the  "  sli[),"  where  the  purchaser's 
men  are  ready  with  empty  boxes  and  with  barrels  of  salt  to  pack  the 
"  king  of  fish."  A  never-ending  string  of  wheelbarrows  convey  the 
boxes  when  packed  to  another  portion  of  tlie  inarket,  where  carts 
are  waiting  to  run  them  to  the  railway  wagons,  to  the  Scotch  curing 
girls,  or  to  the  steamship  which  is  to  take  them  over  to  Hamburg. 
Over  five  thousand  boxes  of  herring  are  often  thus  exported,  and 
when  the  stevedores  of  the  vessel  have  to  cry,  "  Enough,  we  can  take 
no  more,"  the  quay  side  is  at  times  covered  with  another  four 
thousand  boxes. 

One  feature  of  the  herring  season  at  the  different  jiorts  on  the 
east  coast  is  the  arrival  of  the  "  Scotch  lasses,"  who  follow  the  fish- 
ing fleets  down,  and  who  clean  and  "  pickle  "  the  fish  on  the  piers  as 
they  are  brought  in  by  the  trawlers.  In  a  good  season  these  lasses 
will  earn  from  eight  to  ten  dollars,  but  in  a  poor  season  they  will 
receive  little  more  than  their  board,  which  is  guaranteed  them  on 
engagement. 

Most  of  the  people  who  live  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Scot- 
land are  fishermen.  Aberdeen,  one  of  the  largest  cities  of 
Scotland,  is  the  center  of  trade  in  that  country.  It  is 
sometimes  called  the  Granite  City,  for  nearly  all  of  the 
buildings  are  made  of  that  material,  giving  to  the  city  a 
very  handsome,  dignified  appearance.  Granite  is  found  in 
great  quantities  in  eastern  Scotland,  and  Aberdeen  contains 
the  largest  polishing  works  in  the  liritish  Isles. 

Much  of  the  fishing  from  Aberdeen  as  well  as  from 
other  centers  is  done  at  night,  and  in  the  early  morning 


298  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  —  EUROPE 

hundreds  of  boats  come  in  from  the  banks.  The  fish  are 
unloaded,  sorted,  cleaned,  and  packed  so  quickly  that  before 
sunrise  most  of  the  catch  has  been  put  aboard  the  long  train 
standing  beside  the  dock,  and  it  has  started  with  its  ocean 
cargo  for  London.  Part  of  the  fish  will  there  be  reloaded 
and  distributed  throughout  the  country. 

The  other  countries  near  the  North  Sea  —  Germany, 
Sweden,  Denmark,  and  Belgium  —  are  engaged  in  fishmg 
to  a  considerable  extent,  but  in  none  of  them  does  the 
industry  rank  in  importance  with  that  of  Great  Britain 
and  Norway. 

The  fisheries  which  are  carried  on  in  the  northern  part 
of  Russia  are  of  comparatively  little  importance,  but  those 
in  the  Caspian  Sea  and  in  the  Volga  and  the  Ural  rivers 
are  of  great  value.  The  amount  caught  annually  in  these 
waters  is  enough  to  give  nearly  a  pound  apiece  to  every 
man,  woman,  and  child  in  the  world. 

In  many  of  the  markets  of  Russia  one  is  sure  of  procur- 
ing fresh  fish,  for  they  are  kept  alive  in  tanks  of  water  and 
are  killed  after  the  customer  has  made  his  selection.  Im- 
mense quantities  of  fish  are  consumed  by  the  poorer  classes, 
for  it  is  one  of  their  chief  articles  of  food. 

In  the  Ural  River  are  the  most  famous  sturgeon  fisheries 
of  the  world.  The  sturgeon  is  a  fish  five  or  six  feet  long 
which  lives  in  the  salt  water  for  most  of  the  year,  and  in 
the  spring  comes  up  the  rivers  to  lay  its  eggs.  This  is 
the  harvest  time  for  the  Russian  peasant  of  that  region. 
When  the  migration  begins,  a  gun  announces  the  opening 
of  the  fishing  season.  The  sturgeon  is  caught  in  nets,  by 
harpooning  from  boats,  and  by  lines.  In  some  places  on  the 
lower  Ural  a  long  line  is  fastened  on  one  bank  of  the  river, 


A  TRIP  TO  NORWAY  299 

and  the  other  end  is  anchored  to  a  boat  in  midstream.  From 
this  line  hang  hundreds  of  shorter  ones  six  or  seven  feet 
long,  with  a  large  hook  in  the  end  of  each.  As  a  sturgeon 
comes  up  the  river  it  is  caught  on  one  of  the  hooks.  In  its 
wild  efforts  to  get  away  it  becomes  more  and  more  entan- 
gled with  other  hooks,  which  hold  it  fast  while  the  peasants 
kill  it. 

The  fishing  season  lasts  only  three  weeks,  but  during 
that  short  period  thousands  of  sturgeon  are  captured.  The 
flesh  is  used  by  the  peasants  for  food,  and  the  skin  some- 
times serves  him  for  window  glass.  From  the  eggs,  or  roe, 
a  delicacy  known  as  caviare  is  prepared.  This  is  much  nicer 
when  eaten  fresh,  but  as  it  does  not  keep  well,  it  is  often 
preserved  by  salting.  The  Russians  are  so  fond  of  caviare 
that  more  than  one  hundred  thousand  dollars'  worth  is  often 
prepared  in  a  single  season. 

The  swimming  bladder  of  the  sturgeon  is  used  in  the 
preparation  of  isinglass,  the  name  itself  coming  from  two 
Dutch  words  which  mean  sturgeon's  bladder. 

One  of  the  smallest  fish  that  is  commercially  valuable  is 
the  sardine.  When  we  think  of  the  quantities  that  are  sold 
by  the  grocers  all  over  the  United  States,  and  the  great 
numbers  that  are  eaten  in  other  countries,  we  wonder  where 
they  all  come  from  and  who  the  people  are  that  catch  them. 

Several  varieties  of  small  ^  fish  are  caught,  preserved  in 
oil,  and  sold  as  sardines.  The  industry  is  carried  on  in 
Maine  and  in  Norway,  but  the  very  best  sardines  come 
from  France,  so  we  will  visit  that  country  to  see  how  they 
are  caught  and  prepared  for  market. 

In  the  northwestern  part  of  France  is  the  province  of 
Brittany,  which  some  one  has  called  a  land  of  granite  and 


300  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 

rocks.  There  are  meadows,  fields,  and  forests  as  well,  but 
for  the  most  pai-t  the  province  is  dreary  and  uninteresting. 
The  people  are  as  different  from  the  other  inhabitants  of 
France  as  is  the  land  they  dwell  in.  The  monotonous  land- 
scape, the  lowering  sky,  the  gray  rocks,  and  the  sound  of 
the  ever-restless  ocean  are  reflected  in  the  character  of  the 
silent,  dreamy,  persevering  Breton.  Far  removed  from  the 
great  highways  of  the  mainland,  these  people  know  little  of 
the  advance  of  civilization,  but  live  on  in  the  simple  ways 
of  their  forefathers,  clinging  to  a  multitude  of  old  customs 
and  superstitions. 

In  the  center  of  Brittany  the  people  are  engaged  in 
cattle  breeding  and  beekeeping,  and  in  raising  the  gram, 
vegetables,  and  other  products  for  their  food  and  clothing. 
They  live  simply  —  on  cabbage  soup,  porridge,  rye  or  bar- 
ley bread,  and  fish.  Meat  is  seldom  seen  on  the  table. 
Their  houses  are  usually  built  of  stone,  with  only  one  story, 
and  often  with  only  one  room,  which  is  sometimes  shared 
by  the  pig  or  occupied  by  the  cow  on  an  occasional  visit. 
From  the  ceiling  hang  provisions  such  as  gourds,  onions, 
and  other  vegetables,  and  bunches  of  herbs.  The  people 
on  the  coast  spend  much  of  their  time  in  fishing.  Some  of 
the  men  go  on  long  voyages  to  Newfoundland  for  cod  and 
mackerel,  some  to  the  coasts  of  Iceland,  while  others  fish 
nearer  home  for  herring,  sardines,  lobsters,  and  oysters. 

The  sardine  fishing  begins  in  March  or  April  and  lasts 
into  November.  The  early  run  of  fish  is  not  good  for  can- 
ning and  is  not  commonly  used  for  that  purpose.  In  the 
height  of  the  season  there  are  twelve  to  fifteen  hundred 
boats  engaged  in  sardine  fishing  off  the  coast  of  Brittany, 
and  millions  of  fish  are  caught  in  a  single  day. 


A  TRIP  TO  NORWAY 


301 


The  town  of  Concarneau  is  one  of  the  chief  fishing  centers, 
and  nearly  all  its  five  or  six  thousand  inhabitants  are  en- 
gaged in  fishing  or  in  the  preparation  of  the  fish  for  market. 

If  we  wish  to  accompany  the  sardine  fleet  to  the  fishing 
grounds,  we  must  start  very  early  in  the  morning,  between 
two  and  three  o'clock, 
in  order  to  begin  the 
catch  by  daybreak. 
With  good  luck  we 
may  be  back  in  port 
at  ten  o'clock  in  the 
forenoon. 

Our  boat  has  two 
masts  and  carries  two 
pairs  of  very  long, 
heavy  oars  and  twenty 
nets.  The  nets  are  made 
of  fine  cotton  twine 
with  small  meshes. 
They  are  about  one 
hundred  thirty-five  feet 
long  and  five  hundred 
meshes  deep.  They 
are  usually  dyed  dull 
blue   to   render   them 

more  nearly  invisible  in  the  water.'  When  the  boats  are 
at  the  wharves  these  greenish-blue  draperies  are  hung  from 
the  masts  to  dry.  The  blue  nets,  the  brown  sails,  the  dull- 
colored  boats,  the  gray  beach,  and  the  shimmering  water 
make  a  wonderful  scene  which  artists  love  to  paint.  The 
women  with  full,  short  skirts,  bright  bodices,  and  white 


)  Underwood  &  Underwood 
Fig.  124.  "There  are  Twelve  to  Fif- 
teen HuxDRKn  Boats  engaged  in  Sar- 
dine Fishing  OFF  THE  Coast  OF  Brittany" 


302  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  —  EUROPE 

caps,  and  the  men  with  then-  dark  blue  smocks  and  their 
wooden  shoes  give  a  touch  of  hfe  to  the  picture. 

Out  on  the  fishing  grounds  a  streak  of  silver  m  the 
water  some  distance  away  tells  the  location  of  a  shoal  of 
sardines.  The  men  lower  the  net  from  the  stern  of  the 
boat.  It  is  buoyed  up  by  corks  on  the  upper  side  and 
kept  in  a  vertical  position  in  the  water  by  weights  on  the 
bottom.  The  crew  lower  the  sails  and  take  their  places 
at  the  oars.  The  captain,  giving  directions,  stands  at  the 
stern  with  the  bait  near  at  hand. 

Sardine  bait  consists  of  the  eggs  of  fish  and  peanut 
meal.  The  roe  of  the  cod  is  used  more  than  that  of  any 
other  fish,  and  comes  chiefly  from  Norway,  though  some  is 
shipped  from  the  cod-fishing  grounds  of  America  and  the 
Netherlands.  Immense  quantities  are  needed,  and  between 
forty  and  fifty  thousand  barrels  are  used  in  Brittany  every 
season. 

The  bait  scattered  on  the  water  attracts  the  sardines  and 
they  make  an  eager  rush  toward  it.  At  just  the  right 
moment  more  bait  is  thrown  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
net,  and  the  fish  swim  after  it  in  greedy  swarms.  As  they 
strike  the  net  their  heads  pass  tlu-ough  the  small  meshes, 
but  as  they  draw  back  they  are  caught  behind  the  gills  by 
thousands.  The  net,  with  the  struggling  mass  entangled 
in  it,  is  pulled  into  the  boat,  and  another  one  is  put  out  to 
be  filled  in  the  same  manner.  When  the  catch  is  over,  the 
men  remove  the  fish  from  the  meshes  A^ery  carefully  indeed, 
as  the  flesh  is  easily  bruised,  and  the  boats  put  back  to 
port  immediately  in  order  that  the  sardines  may  be  de- 
livered at  the  canneries  as  soon  as  possible.  On  arriving  at 
the  wharves  the  fishermen  at  once  begin  to  unload  their 


A  TRIP  TO  NORWAY  303 

catch.  The  fish  are  counted  by  hand  mto  wicker  baskets 
with  round  bottoms  and  sides,  each  basket  receiving  two 
hundred  fish,  plus  ten  additional  ones  which  are  allowed 
for  the  possible  imperfect  fish.  The  baskets  could  hold 
from  three  to  five  times  as  many  as  are  put  into  them,  but 
it  is  the  desire  not  to  crowd  the  fish. 

Before  the  baskets  of  sardines  are  sent  to  the  canner, 
the  fishermen  move  them  rapidly  up  and  down  in  the 
water  in  order  to  remove  the  dirt  and  loose  scales  from 
the  fish  and  to  make  them  look  bright.  jVIany  scales  come 
off,  and  the  shores  of  the  harbor  are  lined  with  them  after 
a  day's  fishing.  The  water  about  the  shores  is  usually  quite 
foul,  and  the  rinsing  of  the  fish  therein  seems  very 
objectionable. 

The  baskets  are  then  taken  by  the  fishermen  to  the 
agent  to  whom  the  cargo  has  previously  been  sold,  and 
the  contents  are  poured  into  flat  boxes,  or  trays,  which 
are  carried  in  wagons  to  the  cannery.  From  the  time  the 
sardines  are  first  caught,  everything  that  will  bruise, 
mash,  or  otherwise  impair  the  soundness  of  the  flesh  is 
carefully  avoided. 

We  follow  the  wagonloads  of  fish  up  the  narrow  streets 
to  the  canneries  —  large  stone  buildings  surrounded  by 
high  stone  walls  and  inclosing  a  courtyard.  There  are 
about  a  hundred  of  these  establishments  in  Brittany,  each 
with  a  yearly  output  of  from  three  hundred  thousand  to 
four  or  five  million  boxes  of  sardines. 

Here  the  fish  are  first  cleaned  and  then  soaked  in  a  strong 
brine.  Women  remove  them  from  their  salt  bath  and  place 
them  in  wicker  baskets,  which  are  dipped  in  water  to  re- 
move all  loose  dirt,  scales,  and  other  matter,  after  which  the 


304 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 


sardines  are  carefully  packed  for  drying  in  shallow,  oblong 
wire  baskets.  The  more  modern  establishments  are  equipped 
with  drying  rooms  heated  with  steam  pipes ;  in  many  can- 
neries, however,  the  drying  is  done  outdoors,  in  yards 
where  the  baskets  are  hung  or  placed  on  wooden  frames. 

After  drying,  the 
fish  are  taken  in  the 
same  wire  baskets  to 
the  cooking  room  and 
are  lowered,  basket 
and  all,  into  boiling 
oil.  Olive  or  peanut 
oil,  sometimes  adulter- 
ated with  that  of  the 
cotton  seed,  is  gener- 
ally used. 

After  cooking  in 
the  boiling  oil,  the 
fish  are  drained  and 
cooled,  and  are  then 
packed  by  hand  in 
the  small  boxes  which 
are  such  familiar  sights 
in  our  grocery  stores.  Spices  and  other  flavoring  matter  are 
often  added,  sometimes  to  the  boiling  oil  and  sometimes  to 
the  fish  when  they  are  packed.  After  covering  and  sealing, 
the  boxes  are  placed  in  iron  vessels  large  enough  to  hold 
several  thousand  at  a  time,  and  immersed  in  boiling  water 
for  two  hours.  This  completes  the  cooking,  kills  any  germs 
which  would  otherwise  cause  the  fish  to  spoil,  and  discloses 
any  leaks  in  the  boxes. 


Fig. 


©  Underwood  &  Underwood 

125.     "The    Sardines    are    care- 
fully  PACKED    FOR   DRYING  " 


A  TRIP  TO  NORWAY  305 

Think  of  the  enormous  quantities  of  tin  plate  and  boxes 
which  must  be  made  every  year  to  supply  these  canning 
establishments !  'Jlie  sardine  industry  is  not  one  of  tlie 
important  ones  of  the  world,  yet  thousands  of  people  are 
engaged  in  it.  In  one  Breton  town  three  thousand  men, 
women,  and  children  are  employed  in  the  canning  factories, 
to  say  nothing  of  the  hundreds  of  tishermen  who  catch 
the  sardmes. 

TOPICS  FOR  STUDY 


1.  Description  of  Norway. 

2.  Vikings  and  modern  Norwegian  sailors. 

3.  Cod,  herring,  and  mackerel  fishing. 

4.  Fishing  in  the  Arctic  Ocean. 

5.  Description  of  Norwegian  cities. 

6.  North  Cape  and  the  midnight  sun. 

7.  Lumbering  and  farming  in  Norway. 

8.  Norwegian  sports. 

9.  Other  fishing  countries. 
10.  The  sardine  industry. 

II 

1.  Through  how  many  degrees  of  latitude  does  Norway  extend? 
How  far  would  this  distance  reach  on  a  map  of  the  United  States? 

2.  What  is  the  area  of  Norway?  the  population?  How  many 
people  are  there  to  every  square  mile?  Compare  both  area  and 
population  with  some  state  or  states  in  our  country.  Compare  the 
population  per  square  mile  with  that  of  England ;  of  Germany ;  of 
France.  What  effect  may  the  position  of  a  country  have  on  the  density 
of  its  population  ? 

3.  Locate  the  great  fishing  grounds  of  the  world.  Name  the 
countries  in  which  the  fishing  industry  is  very  important. 

4.  Sketch  a  map  of  the  North  Sea  and  show  all  the  countries 
bordering  on  it.  Indicate  all  the  cities  which  serve  as  distributing 
centers  for  the  fish  exported  from  Norway.  Show  the  regions  where 
cod,  herring,  and  mackerel  are  cauglit. 


306 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES —EUROPE 


5.  Sketch  a  map  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean  showing  the  eastern  coast 
of  North  America  and  the  western  coast  of  Europe.  Show  the  Gulf 
Stream.  Indicate  by  arrows  the  direction  of  the  prevailing  wind. 
What  would  be  the  effect  on  the  climate  of  both  North  America 
and  Europe  if  the  prevailing  winds  were  in  the  opposite  direction? 
Explain  the  difference  in  climate  between  the  eastern  and  western 
coasts  of  the  Scandinavian  jjeninsula. 

6.  What  i^art  of  North  America  is  in  the  same  latitude  as 
Hammerfest?    Write  out  a  comparison  of  the  two  places. 

7.  On  a  map  of  Norway  locate  the  four  chief  cities.  Write  beside 
each  its  latitude  and  also  the  names  of  places  in  North  America 
equally  far  north. 

8.  Name  several  causes  which  have  contributed  to  the  importance 
of  the  Norwegian  fisheries. 

9.  Describe  the  Norwegian  city  you  would  like  best  to  visit. 

10.  See  if  you  can  find  any  information  about  the  sardine  industry 
in  Maine. 

Ill 

Be  able  to  spell  and  pronounce  the  following  names.  Locate  each 
place  and  tell  what  was  said  of  it  in  this  and  in  any  previous  chapter. 
Add  other  facts  if  possible. 


Belgium 

Norway 

London 

Brittany 

Rhode  Island 

New  York 

California 

Russia 

Petrograd 

Denmark 

Scotland 

Sitka 

England 

Sweden 

Tromso 

Florida 

United  States 

Trondhjem 

France 

Vardo 

Germany 

Aberdeen 

Y'armouth 

Iceland 

Bergen 

Japan 

Buffalo 

Arctic  Ocean 

Labrador 

Christiania 

Caspian  Sea 

Lapland 

•    Concarneau 

Lofoten  Islands 

Maine 

Edinburgh 

North  Cape 

Netherlands 

Grimsby 

North  Sea 

Newfoundland 

Hammerfest 

Ural  River 

New  York 

Hull 

Volga  River 

CHAPTER   XVI 
SPAIN  AND  OLIVES 

Cottonseed  oil  is  made  from  the  seed  of  a  plant,  peanut 
oil  from  a  nut  grown  in  the  ground,  but  olive  oil  is  made 
from  the  fruit  of  a  tree,  the  only  fruit  which  yields  oil 
from  its  pulp  in  sufficient  quantity  to  be  of  great  commercial 
value,  though  coconut  oil  is  now  of  considerable  importance. 

The  gnarled,  twisted  olive  trees,  with  gray-green  foliage, 
can  be  found  in  great  quantities  in  all  countries  which  bor- 
der on  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  but  so  numerous  are  they  in 
Spain,  Italy,  and  France  that  the  fields  and  hills  would  seem 
bare  without  them.  In  these  three  countries  —  in  Greece, 
across  the  Mediterranean  in  Algeria  and  Tunis,  and  in 
those  parts  of  Asia  near  the  eastern  end  of  the  great  blue 
sea  —  olives  are  raised  in  sufficiently  large  quantities  to 
supply  the  wants  of  the  people  at  home  and  to  export.  The 
home  use  is  an  important  one,  for  the  fruit  is  a  common 
article  of  food  among  the  poorer  classes. 

Nearly  every  family  in  southern  Spain  keeps  a  small 
barrel  of  pickled  olives  on  hand ;  they  are  eaten,  not  as  a 
relish  as  with  us,  but  as  a  main  dish.  Olive  oil  is  one  of  the 
first  necessities  of  life  for  the  peasantry  of  southern  Europe. 
In  a  trip  through  southern  Italy  you  would  see  the  dark- 
eyed  boys  and  girls  munching  a  piece  of  bread  spread  with 
oil  with  as  much  enjoyment  as  the  American  child  would 
eat  his  slice  of  bread  and  butter.    Olive  oil  is  used  in  place 

307 


308  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 

of  lard  for  frying,  and  from  every  open  door  where  cooking 
is  going  on  comes  the  smell  of  hot  fat. 

Besides  its  use  for  food,  olive  oil  is  used  in  great  quan- 
tities in  the  makmg  of  soap,  and  you  will  find  this  product 
mentioned  among  the  manufactures  of  many  cities  located 
in  the  olive-producing  countries.  The  oil  which  is  used  for 
soap,  for  lighting,  and  for  lubricating  purposes  is  not  suit- 
able for  food,  but  is  made  after  the  pure,  edible  oil  has  been 
extracted  from  the  crushed  pulp.  The  medicinal  qualities  of 
olive  oil,  knowai  centuries  ago,  are  appreciated  by  modern 
physicians.  The  early  Grecian  athletes  used  to  run  along 
the  sandy  beaches  of  the  Adriatic  Sea  until  they  perspired 
freely.  They  then  rubbed  their  limbs  with  sand,  thus  irri- 
tating the  skin,  and  immediately  afterwards  rubbed  olive 
oil  into  the  pores  to  lubricate  their  muscles  and  limber  up 
their  joints. 

Important  as  olive  oil  is  in  the  homes  of  the  people  of 
southern  Europe,  it  is  also  exported  in  great  quantities. 
The  olives  and  oil  shipped  from  Spain  rank  higher  than  the 
orange  in  value.  In  Italy,  only  the  silk  exports  exceed  those 
of  the  olive  tree.  Not  only  the  oil,  but  the  pickled  green 
fruit  as  well,  is  sent  m  great  quantities  to  America,  Eng- 
land, and,  in  fact,  to  all  parts  of  the  world.  The  large  olives 
seen  in  the  bottles  at  the  grocery  stores  are  called  queen 
olives  and  are  produced  only  in  a  small  circle,  not  twenty- 
five  miles  in  diameter,  around  the  city  of  Seville  in  southern 
Spain.  Of  the  fine  large  olives  grown  in  this  region,  ninety- 
five  out  of  every  one  hundred  come  to  the  United  States, 
where  they  are  placed  in  bottles  b}^  American  laborers. 
Millions  of  the  tall  slender  bottles  are  now  made  annually 
in  the  United  States  for  this  purpose. 


SPAIN  AND  OLIVES 


309 


To  see  how  the  fruit  is  raised  and  prepared  for  market,  let 
us  visit  an  orchard  in  Spain,  where  more  land  is  covered  with 
olive  orchards  and  more  oil  is  made  than  in  any  other 
country.   It  is  claimed  that  of  every  one  hundred  pounds  of 


Fig.  126.    "The  Olives  and  Oil  shipped  fkom  Spain  rank  higher 
THAN  the  Orange  in  Value" 

Courtesy  of  H.  C.  Newcomb,  Philadelphia 

olives  produced  in  all  the  world  Spain  produces  more  than 
forty.  The  land  in  Spain  devoted  to  the  cultivation  of 
ohves  is  nearly  equal  to  the  area  of  the  state  of  Connecticut. 
This  land  bore  more  than  three  billion  pounds  of  fruit  in  a 
year.  Four  fifths  of  this  amount  was  used  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  oil,  of  which  so  great  a  quantity  was  made  that 


310  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 

a  tube  three  feet  in  diameter  stretching  the  entire  distance 
across  the  United  States  would  not  hold  it  all. 

Our  trip  will  take  us  through  the  southern  part  of  Spain 
to  the  province  of  Andalusia,  which  lies  between  the  Sierra 
Morena  and  Sierra  Nevada  mountains.  This  is  the  most 
important  olive-producing  section  of  the  country  and  in 
many  ways  the  most  attractive  portion  of  Spain,  with  snow- 
capped mountains,  fertile  valleys,  and  the  famous  old  cities 
of  Seville,  Granada,  Cordoba,  and  Malaga.  The  Guadal- 
quivir River,  which  drains  much  of  this  region,  is  the  most 
important  river  in  Spain,  for  it  is  the  only  one  in  the  country 
which  is  navigable  for  any  considerable  distance  from  its 
mouth.  The  city  of  Seville  is  at  the  head  of  navigation, 
about  one  hundred  miles  from  the  ocean. 

The  olive  grove  which  we  will  visit  lies  not  far  from  the 
river  and  near  the  city  of  Seville.  In  this  famous  olive- 
producing  section  the  orchards  cover  a  vast  territory.  Some 
of  them  are  very  small  and  are  owned  by  Spanish  peasants, 
but  often  several  estates  are  controlled  by  one  proprietor. 
One  house  in  Seville  owns  seven  estates  comprismg  six  thou- 
sand acres,  all  devoted  to  the  culture  of  queen  olives.  In 
the  region  around  this  city  are  located  many  olive-oil  fac- 
tories and  pickling  establishments. 

Cultivated  olive  trees  are  divided  into  two  classes,  ac- 
cording to  the  use  made  of  their  fruit.  The  queen  olive 
and  the  manzanilla  are  the  most  popular  for  pickling.  The 
former  is  the  large  heart-shaped  fruit  sold  in  great  quanti- 
ties in  the  United  States,  while  the  smaller,  stronger-flavored 
manzanilla  is  more  generally  used  in  Europe. 

The  peasants  who  work  in  the  orchards  are  very  poor, 
and  live  in  a  way  which  would  seem  impossible  to  us. 


SPAIN  AND  OLIVES 


311 


We  should  not  rest  well  upon  their  beds  of  straw  on  the 
hard  floor,  nor  should  we  enjoy  the  presence  of  the  goat, 
the  pig,  or  the  hens  in  the  same  room  with  us ;  but  these 
things  do  not  trouble  the  Spanish  peasant,  for  he  has 
known  nothmg  else  all  his  life.  Gay  and  happy  by  nature, 
he  comes  cheerfully  out  of  the  low  stone  cottage  and,  in 
the  early  dawn,  starts  for  his  day's  work  in  the  orchards. 


?"■ 


„->-A, 


I 


■^'.3iP'<?' 


,^?.- 


U-^k, 


Fig.  127.    "In  This  Famous  Olive-Producing  Section  the  Orchards 
COVER  A  Vast  Territory" 

Courtesy  of  H.  .J.  Heinz  Company 

perhaps  several  miles  away.  He  eats  his  breakfast  as  he 
goes  —  some  hard,  dark  bread,  with  an  onion  or  perhaps 
some  pieces  of  tough,  salted  fish.  Sometimes  be  is  fortu- 
nate enough  to  have  in  his  pocket  a  bottle  of  wine  and 
a  few  olives.  He  may  not  have  anything  else  to  eat  until 
the  end  of  his  long  day's  work.  This  is  hard  and  tiresome, 
for  in  the  region  around  Seville  during  July  and  August 
the  temperature  sometimes  rises  as  high  as  one  hundred 
twenty  degrees. 


312 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  —  EUROPE 


The  Spanish  peasant  is  poor,  but  he  is  also  polite, 
hospitable,  and  cheerful.  No  matter  how  small  or  mean 
the  home,  m  entering  the  door  we  should  be  greeted  with 


©  Keystone  View  Co. 

Fig.  128.    "The  Spanish  Peasant  is  Poor" 

cordial  wishes  m  the  musical  Spanish  language:  though 
the  fare  be  poor  we  should  be  given  an  invitation  to  share 
it.  In  traveling  the  country  roads,  should  we  meet' a  peasant 
on  muleback  we  should  hear  the  kindly  salutation,  "  May 
God  go  with  you." 


SPAIN  AND  OLIVES 


313 


The  gathering  of  the  ohves  for  pickhng  is  done  when  the 
fruit  is  still  green,  and  the  object  of  picklmg  is  to  take  out 
the  bitterness  and  make  them  more  pleasant  to  the  taste. 
The  picking  of  the  green  olives  begins  about  the  middle  of 
September  and  lasts  about  six  weeks.  They  are  picked  from 
the  trees  one  by  one  with  great  care,  for  a  bruise  or  a  scratch 


Fig.  129.    "The  Picking  of  the   Green   Ouives   begins  about  the 

Middle  of  September" 

Courtesy  of  H.  J.  Heinz  Company 

shows  very  plainly  after  they  are  cured  and  injures  their 
appearance  in  the  bottles.  Hundreds  of  pickers,  carrying 
long  ladders,  work  together  in  the  fields,  for  the  fruit  must 
all  be  gathered  before  it  changes  in  color. 

Each  workman  is  supplied  with  a  light  basket,  which  is 
hung  around  his  neck  or  shoulders  in  order  that  both  hands 
may  be  free  for  picking.  The  fruit  is  carefully  heaped  in 
piles  scattered  over  the  ground,  to  be  roughly  assorted 


314 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 


before  it  is  taken  from  the  orchard;  it  is  then  loaded  on 
donkeys,  horses,  and  large  two-wheeled  wagons,  and  taken 
to  the  factory,  where  it  is  properly  cured.  Few  owners  of 
orchards  prepare  the  pickled  oliv^es ;  the  fruit  is  generally 
cured  by  merchants  who  make  a  specialty  of  that  work. 


Fig.  130.    '*The    Fruit   is   generally    cured    by    Merchants   who 
MAKE  A  Specialty  of  That  Work" 

Courtesy  of  H.  J.  Heinz  Company 


The  curer  of  olives  contracts  with  the  farmer  for  his 
entire  product,  and  sends  his  own  pickers  to  gather  the 
fruit.  AVhen  the  olive  is  first  picked  from  the  tree  it  is 
light  green  in  color ;  after  it  has  been  pickled  it  is  a  very 
dark  green;  and  after  its  bath  of  six  or  seven  weeks  in 
brine  it  takes  on  the  bright,  golden-green  color  of  com- 
merce and  is  ready  to  be  assorted  into  fourteen  different 


SPAIN"  AXD  OLIVES 


315 


sizes.  The  difference  in  diameter  of  the  middle  sizes  is  only 
a  small  fraction  of  an  inch,  and  the  girls  of  the  region 
who   do  the  sorting  become  very  skillful  at  this  work. 


Fig.  131.    "The  Curer  of  Olives  contracts  with  the  Farmer  for 

HIS  Entire  Product" 
Courtesy  of  H.  J.  Heinz  Company 

The  making  of  oil  is  a  much  more  important  industry 
than  pickling  the  fruit.  After  the  picking,  the  olives  are 
taken  either  to  some  large  factory  or  to  a  press  on.  the  farm. 
There  are  to-day  in  Spain  thousands  of  small  presses  worked 


316 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  —  EUROPE 


by  hand  or  mule  power,  and,  in  the  case  of  some  of  the  larger 
factories,  by  steam.  In  many  places  the  old-fashioned  horse 
power  is  used  as  it  was  hundreds  of  years  ago,  and  in  other 
sections  mountain  streams  run  the  presses.  It  is  a  well- 
known  fact  among  makers  of  olive  oil  that  the  slower  the 


Fig.  132.    Circular   or   Conical    Stoxes    move    around   over   THi, 
Fruit  until  the  Pulp  is  crushed 

Courtesy  of  H.  J.  Heinz  Company 

process  used  in  crushing  the  pulp,  the  better  the  quality  of 
the  oil.  Modern  machinery  is  more  rapid,  but  it  has  the 
bad  effect  of  heating  the  pulp,  and  the  oil  produced  has  a 
greater  tendency  to  grow  rancid. 

We  will  follow  the  donkeys  with  their  loaded  baskets 
from  the  orchard  to  the  oil  mill.    The  olives  are  placed 


SPAIN  AND  OLIVES 


317 


on  a  large,  flat  stone,  and  other  circular  or  conical  stones 
move  around  upon  the  flat  one  until  the  pulp  is  crushed. 
The  juice  which  is  pressed  out  runs  off  into  large  tanks, 
and  looks  very  much  like  New  Orleans  molasses.  Seventy- 
five  per  cent  of  this  juice  is  water,  not  more  than  fifteen 
per  cent  is  oil,  while  the  remaining  ten  per  cent  consists  of 
pulp,  stems,  sticks,  and 
little  particles  of  sand 
which  have  embedded 
themselves  in  the  skin 
or  pulp  of  the  olives. 
After  this  mass  has  been 
allowed  to  stand  for  a 
time  in  the  crocks  or 
tanks,  the  heavier  parti- 
cles sink  to  the  bottom, 
and  the  lighter  oil  bub- 
bles to  the  top,  where 
it  is  siphoned  off  and 
afterwards  filtered  for 
bottling  purposes.  The 
pulp  is  crushed  again 
two  or  three  times  be- 
tween straw  mats.  Tlie 
first  pressing  of  oil  —  which  is  considered  the  best  —  is 
called  virgin  oil;  the  second  and  third  may  also  be  edible, 
but  the  fourth  pressmg,  which  is  made  after  soaking  the 
pulp  in  hot  water,  is  used  only  in  the  manufacture  of  soap 
and  for  lubricating  and  lighting  purposes. 

Nearly  every  port  of  Spain  exports  olive  oil.    From  Bar- 
celona, the  chief  industrial  center,  very  large  quantities  are 


Fig.  133.   The  Pulp  is  crushed  again 

BETWEEN    SriiAW    MaTS 

Courtesy  of  H.  J.  Heinz  Company 


318 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 


shipped.  This  city,  nearly  the  size  of  Boston,  is  the  largest 
city  in  Spain  next  to  Madrid  and  is  built  in  crescent  shape 
on  the  coast  of  the  jNlediterranean  Sea.  Its 'manufactures 
are  as  important  as  its  commerce.  Nearly  one  hundred  mil- 
lion dollars'  worth  of  cotton,  woolen,  and  silk  goods  are  made 


)  Underwood  &  Underwood 

Fig.  134.    Barcelona  is  built  in  Crescent  Shape  on  the  Coast  of 

THE  Mediterranean  Sea 


here  annually,  besides  great  quantities  of  machinery,  paper, 
glass,  chemicals,  soap,  dyes,  and  many  other  articles.  These 
manufactures,  together  with  wine,  brandy,  oil,  and  fruit, 
form  its  principal  exports. 

If  you  could  examine  the  cargoes  of  the  steamers  which 
leave  Seville  on  the  Guadalquivir  River,  which  lie  in  the 


SPAIX  AND  OLIVES 


319 


Bay  of  Cadiz,  or  which  steam  out  of  the  harbor  of  Malaga, 
you  would  find  stowed  in  their  holds,  besides  almonds, 
cork,  licorice,  wine,  grapes,  and  raisins,  immense  quantities 
of  olive  oil  and  pickled  olives.  There  are  steamers  sailing 
once  a  month  from 
Seville  to  New  York 
which  carry  thousands 
of  gallons  of  pickled 
olives,  and  our  annual 
importation  from  this 
one  Spanish  city  is 
worth  many  thou- 
sands   of    dollars. 

We  should  like  to 
stop  in  some  of  the 
queer  old  Spanish 
towns,  for  they  are 
very  different  from 
our  American  cities. 
The  streets  are  nar- 
row and  crooked,  the 
windows  of  the  lower 
stories  of  the  houses 
are  barred  and  look  for- 
saken, but  we  might 

catch. sight  of  a  dark-eyed  Spanish  beauty  peering  shyly  at 
us  from  the  balcony  above.  We  should  miss  many  of  our 
ordinary  comforts  and  luxuries,  and  the  tiny  stove  with  its 
small  fire  of  charcoal  does  not  look  as  if  it  would  keep  us 
sufficiently  warm  when  the  cold  wind  del  Norte  blows  from 
the  snow-capped  Pyrenees. 


(£)  Underwood  &  Underwood 

Fig.  135.    The   Streets   of   the   Queer 
Old  Spanish  Towns  are  Narrow 


320  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 

The  oil  produced  iii  Italy  is  of  a  finer  quality  and  is  in 
much  greater  demand  in  the  United  States  than  that  pro- 
duced in  Spain.  The  product  of  the  country,  however,  is 
not  large  enough  to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  Italian 
home  and  export  trade,  and  the  merchants  of  Italy  there- 
fore purchase  annually  large  quantities  of  oil  from  Spain, 
the  amount  varying  with  the  crop  of  the  two  countries. 
This  oil  they  blend  with  the  Italian  oil  and  pack  in  tins, 
glass,  and  barrels  for  export. 

We  must  not  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that  great  quantities 
of  olive  oil  are  manufactured  on  the  southern  as  well  as 
on  the  northern  borders  of  the  jVIediterranean  Sea.  Both 
Algeria  and  Tunis  make  considerable  each  year,  most  of 
which  is  sent  to  France,  generally  to  Marseille.  The  prod- 
uct of  those  two  countries  is  crude  and  can  scarcely  be 
called  edible  oil ;  a  small  percentage  of  it,  however,  is  suc- 
cessfully blended  with  the  better  oils  of  France  and  Italy. 
The  olive  tree  flourishes  in  portions  of  Tunis  where  there 
is  little  rainfall  and  where  the  climate  is  similar  to  that  of 
Texas  and  Arizona.  The  United  States  government  has 
sent  experts  to  northern  Africa  to  study  the  industry  in 
these  dry  regions  and  to  obtain  seeds  which  may  be  tested 
in  our  arid  states. 

In  addition  to  the  olive  oil  which  goes  to  Marseille  and 
Bordeaux,  Algeria  sends  considerable  quantities  to  Brittany, 
the  province  in  the  northwestern  part  of  France  where 
live  the  quaint  fisher  folk  whom  artists  love  to  paint.  The 
oil  is  used  in  the  canning  of  sardines,  of  which  you  read 
in  the  chapter  on  ocean  harvests. 

A  very  excellent  quality  of  olive  oil  is  manufactured  in 
northern  Italy  and  on  the  Riviera,  that  beautiful  French 


SPAIN  AND  OLIVES 


321 


coast  on  the  Mediterranean  shore  so  noted  for  its  health- 
ful chmate  and  its  beauty.  The  olive  oil  produced  in  those 
two  sections,  from  the  very  nature  of  the  climatic  conditions, 
is  the  finest  in  the  world,  because  the  nearer  the  cultivator 
reaches  the  point  where  the  olives  cannot  be  groAvn,  the 
finer  becomes  the  quality  of  the  oil,  just  as  New  England 


Fig.  136.    Bullock  Team  used  in  Spain 


I.  i.aci  wood 


and  Canada  apples  are  finer  than  those  grown  in  the  South- 
ern states.  The  very  best  olive  oil  comes  from  near  Nice, 
France,  and  next  to  that  is  the  product  of  Lucca,  a  city 
of  northern  Italy  near  the  Mediterranean  Sea. 

We  have  not  mentioned  thus  far  the  olive  industry  of 
the  United  States,  although  in  recent  years  this  has  growai 
to  considerable  importance.  Neither  the  acreage  nor  the 
product  of  C'alifornia  equals  that  of  France,  Italy,  or  Spain, 
yet  it  is  the  only  state  in  our  country  in  which  as  yet  olives 


322  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 

are  produced  in  any  quantity.  The  oil  is  considered  very 
good,  and  there  seems  to  be  a  market  for  all  that  is  pro- 
duced. The  olives  not  used  in  the  manufacture  of  oil  are 
cured  ripe  and  preserved  in  tins.  They  are  different  both 
in  appearance  and  taste  from  the  green,  pickled  olives  of 
European  countries. 

Until  recent  years  the  people  of  the  United  States  have 
always  used  animal  fats  and  mineral  oils  for  food,  for 
lighting,  for  lubricating,  and  for  the  manufacture  of  soap. 
Vegetable  oils  are  much  cheaper  and  are  used  in  Europe 
in  immense  quantities  for  those  purposes.  Consequently 
there  are  many  plants  cultivated  in  Europe  for  the  oil 
obtained  from  their  seeds,  and  immense  quantities  of  oil- 
producing  seeds  and  nuts  are  imported  from  far-away  coun- 
tries and  islands.  Chief  among  them  are  hemp,  flax,  and 
cotton  seeds,  those  of  the  gorgeous  sunflower,  and  great 
quantities  of  peanuts  and  other  nuts.  Hundreds  of  thou- 
sands of  tons  of  flaxseed  from  the  plains  of  Argentma, 
oil  seeds  and  nuts  from  the  East  Indies  and  West  Africa, 
and  cotton  seeds  from  Egypt  and  the  United  States  are 
imported  into  Europe  and  manufactured  into  oil.  England 
imports  two  billion  pounds  of  such  seeds  for  her  oil  fac- 
tories. The  city  of  Marseille  alone  imports  annually  enough 
seeds  to  fill  a  freight  train  one  hundred  seventy-five  miles 
long.  More  than  ten  thousand  of  the  cars  will  be  filled 
with  peanuts,  of  which  Marseille  imports,  chiefly  from  the 
East  Indies  and  Africa,  more  than  any  other  city  in  tue 
world.  From  these  a  great  quantity  of  oil  is  made  in  her 
factories ;  this  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  soaps  and 
perfumeries,  and  undoubtedly  a  limited  quantity  is  used 
for  the  adulteration  of  ohve  oil. 


SPAIN  AND  OLIVES 


323 


Have  you  ever  heard  of  a  sunflower  farm  ?  In  Russia 
there  are  hundreds  of  them  covered  with  the  tall  greeu 
stalks  and  immense  yellow  blossoms.  What  a  sight  it  must 
be  !  More  than  one  hundred  fifty  mills  turn  out  millions  of 
gallons  of  sunflower  oil  every  year.  This  is  eaten  as  salad 
oil  by  the  Russians,  who  prefer  it  to  the  oil  of  the  olive. 


)  Keystone  View  Co. 

Fig.  137.    Washing  Clothes  by  the  Eiverside  in  a  Spanish  Town 

Until  the  value  of  the  seeds  of  the  cotton  plant  was  dis- 
covered, the  United  States  never  ranked  very  high  as  a 
producer  of  vegetable  oil.  To-day,  however,  from  the  mil- 
lions of  pounds  of  cotton  seeds  produced  every  year,  we 
make  such  immense  quantities  of  oil  that  this  country 
holds  first  rank  in  vegetable-oil  production. 

As  cottonseed  oil  is  healthful  and  nourishing,  and  cheaper 
than  the  oil  of  the  olives,  it  is  used  by  the  European  peas- 
ants as  a  food  by  itself  or  for  mixing  with  olive  oil.    After 


324  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 

all  the  oil  possible  has  been  extracted  from  the  cotton  seeds, 
they  are  pressed  into  cakes  or  ground  into  meal.  Both  of 
these  products  furnish  excellent  food  for  cattle  and  are 
used  in  large  quantities  not  only  in  this  country  but  abroad. 
Few  people  realize  what  a  great  trade  in  cottonseed  prod- 
ucts is  carried  on  to-day,  for  not  very  many  years  ago 
these  seeds  were  considered  a  waste  material  of  which  it 
was  difficult  to  dispose. 

In  very  recent  years  a  new  source  of  oil  has  been  dis- 
covered in  the  soya  bean,  which  grows  in  great  quanti- 
ties in  Manchuria,  China.  The  peppery  sauce  called  soy, 
which  the  Japanese  like  so  much  and  which  they  eat  in 
such  large  amounts  on  different  articles  of  food,  is  made 
from  these  beans.  Large  quantities  of  them  are  shipped 
to  Japan,  where  the  oil  is  extracted.  The  imports  into 
Europe  are  also  large,  and  considerable  quantities  of  the 
oil  are  used  for  the  manufacture  of  soap,  for  lubricating 
purposes,  and  for  adulteration  of  other  oils,  while  the  cake 
and  meal  are  sold  as  cattle  food. 

TOPICS  FOR  STUDY 


1.  Spain's  product  of  olives  and  olive  oil. 

2.  Area  of  olive  production. 

3.  Uses  of  olive  oil. 

4.  Olive  orchards. 

5.  Picking  the  fruit. 

6.  Pickling  olives. 

7.  Making  olive  oil. 

8.  Shipping  ports. 

9.  Other  oil-producing  coimtries. 

10.  Some  important  oil-producing  seeds  and  nuts. 


SPAIN  AND  OLIVES 


325 


II 

1.  On  a  map  of  Europe  color  the  olive-producing  countries. 

2.  Look  at  bottles  of  pickled  olives  and  find,  if  possible,  from 
what  place  thej  come.    Examine  in  a  similar  way  bottles  of  olive  oil. 

3.  What  interesting  building  is  in  Granada?  Why  is  it  famous? 

4.  Look  up  some  facts  about  Cordoba. 

5.  Sketch  a  map  of  Spaiu.  Show  all  the  places  mentioned  in  the 
chapter. 

6.  Tell  the  route  from  JMalaga  to  New  York  City.  What  will  be 
the  cargoes  of  vessels  sailing  between  these  ports? 

7.  What  name  is  given  to  the  four  countries  of  Africa  bordering 
on  the  MediteiTanean  Sea?  To  whom  does  each  country  belong? 
Name  their  principal  products. 

8.  Read  the  chapter  on  Fruit  in  "Industrial  Studies — United 
States,"  and  tell  what  was  said  in  it  about  the  production  of  olives 
in  California. 

9.  Name  all  the  different  kinds  of  oil  mentioned  in  this  chapter. 
From  what  seed  or  nut  are  they  manufactured?  Where  are  these 
obtained  ? 

Ill 

Be  able  to  spell  and  pronounce  the  following  names.  Locate  each 
place  and  tell  what  was  said  of  it  in  this  and  in  any  previous  chapter. 
Add  other  facts  if  possible. 


Algeria 

Manchuria 

Lucca 

Andalusia 

New  England 

Madrid 

Argentina 

Riviera 

Malaga 

Arizona 

Russia 

Marseille 

Brittany 

Spain 

New  York 

California 

Texas 

Nice 

China 

Tunis 

Seville 

Connecticut 

United  States 

East  Indies 

Adriatic  Sea 

Egypt 

Barcelona 

Bay  of  Cadiz 

England 

Bordeaux 

Guadalquivir  River 

France 

Boston 

Mediterranean  Sea 

Greece 

Cadiz 

Pyrenees  Mountains 

Italy 

Cordoba 

Sierra  Morena 

Japan 

Granada 

Sierra  Nevada 

CHAPTER  XVII 

GRAPES  AND  WINE  AND  THE  COUNTRIES  WHICH 

PRODUCE  THEM 

The  raising  of  grapes  and  the  manufacturing  of  wine 
are  very  important  industries  in  most  of  the  countries  of 
central  and  southern  Europe.  To  become  acquainted  with 
the  real  everyday  life  of  the  peasants,  one  must  see  them 
at  work  in  the  vineyards  or  wineries,  for  hundreds  of 
thousands  of  men,  women,  and  children  find  employ- 
ment in  tendino-  the  vine  and  in  the  manufacture  and 
sale  of  wine. 

From  its  original  home,  probably  somewhere  in  Asia,  the 
industry  has  spread  westward  through  Europe,  and  thence 
across  the  Atlantic  Ocean  to  the  United  States  and  South 
America,  until  at  the  present  time  large  vineyards  may  be 
found  in  nearly  all  countries  of  the  world  where  the  cli- 
mate is  favorable.  Throughout  all  southern  Europe,  in 
the  United  States,  in  the  northern  and  southern  parts  of 
Africa,  in  several  of  the  South  American  countries,  and  in 
far-away  Australia  the  grape  industry  or  the  making  of 
wine  have  become  of  much  importance. 

The  grapevine  is  naturally  a  great  climber,  and  if  left 

to  itself  wall  twist  and  twine  high  in  the  branches  and  even 

to  the  tops  of  the  tallest  trees.    A  noted  historian  of  Italy 

tells  us  that  in  olden  times  the  vine  climbed  so  high  that 

the  grape  gatherer  always  inserted  a  clause  in  his  contract 

326 


GRAPES  AND  WINE 


327 


to  the  effect  that  in  case  he  lost  his  hfe  by  falling  from 
such  heights  the  niast(M-  of  the  vineyard  was  to  pay  all 
funeral  expenses. 

In  modern  vineyards,  however,  the  plants  bear  little  resem- 
blance to  their  ambitious  ancestors,  and  it  is  hard  to  recognize 
the  rambling,  twist- 
ing climbers  in  the 
short,  closely  pruned 
vines  tied  to  poles 
no  taller  than  our 
heads.  In  many 
parts  of  Italy  the 
vine  is  allowed  to 
grow  in  a  more 
natural  way  and  is 
hung  from  pole  to 
pole  or  from  tree 
to  tree.  In  ridings 
by  acre  after  acre 
of  these  festooned 
fields,  one  feels  as  if 
the  whole  country 
were  decorated  for 
some  great  holiday. 

In  the  vintage 
season,  during  September  and  October,  great  fetes  or  fes- 
tivals of  the  vine,  witnessed  by  thousands  of  people,  are 
held  in  France,  Germany,  and  Italy.  There  are  long  days 
of  hard  work  in  the  vineyards  for  old  and  j^oung,  but 
there  are  also  days  of  merrymaking,  and  with  them  dances 
and  tableaux  and  processions  with  gayly  decorated  floats. 


Fig.  138.    The  Lahgest  Grapevine  in  the 
World  is  in  California 


328  INDUSTKIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 

In  all  of  the  vine-growing  countries  of  Europe  the  vintage 
time  is  looked  forward  to  as  the  pleasantest  part  of  the 
year,  and  much  fun  and  frolic  are  mixed  with  the  long 
days  of  hard  work  in  the  vineyard. 

The  variety  of  grapes  raised  usually  differs  according  to 
the  use  which  is  to  be  made  of  them.  Raisins  and  wine  are 
not  often  made  from  the  same  kind  of  fruit,  and  different 
varieties  must  be  grown  for  the  different  kinds  of  wine. 
Grapes  which  are  to  be  used  m  the  manufacture  of  wine 
are  raised  in  immense  quantities  in  France,  Italy,  and 
Spain.  These  three  countries  produce  the  greater  part  of 
the  whole  European  product.  The  industry  is  important 
also  in  Central  Europe,  Portugal,  Germany,  and  the  small 
countries  of  the  Balkan  Peninsula.  Germany  is  the  most 
northerly  country  where  the  grape  can  be  grown  success- 
fully for  wine  manufacture.  In  a  sail  up  the  Rhine  River 
we  should  hardly  know  which  to  admire  the  more,  the  gray 
old  castles  crowning  the  cliffs,  or  the  miles  of  vineyards 
which  on  either  side  stretch  from  the  river  up  the  steep 
slopes  to  the  very  tops  of  the  hills.  These  are  so  steep  that 
the  slopes  are  terraced  like  flights  of  stairs,  to  hold  the  soil 
m  place  ;  otherwise  it  would  be  washed  down  mto  the 
river  by  heavy  rains.  Some  of  the  terraces  such  as  you  see 
in  Fig.  76  are  built  up  with  stone  walls  which  are  hun- 
dreds of  years  old.  The  soil  for  the  upper  terraces  has  been 
carried  up  in  baskets  by  the  peasants  themselves,  as  no  farm 
animal  could  pull  a  load  up  such  steep  grades.  The  little 
terraced  sfardens  are  so  small  that  all  the  work  must  be 
done  by  hand,  as  there  is  no  room  in  which  to  turn  a  plow. 
Yet  from  these  steep  slopes  come  the  famous  Rhine  wines, 
which  are  considered  among  the  best  in  the  world. 


GRAPES  AND  WINE  329 

Let  us  take  a  trip  to  the  southwestern  corner  of  Europe 
and  visit  the  vineyards  of  Spain  and  Portugal.  In  both  of 
these  countries  the  making  of  wine  and  the  curing  of  raisins 
are  the  most  important  manufactures.  The  wine  whicli  is 
shipped  to  other  countries  equals  in  value  one  third  of  all 
the  other  exports  put  together.  Nearly  half  of  the  enor- 
mous quantity  of  wine  which  Spain  produces  annually  is 
sent  to  France,  where  it  is  mixed  with  French  wines,  which 
are  considered  better. 

In  our  tour  through  Spain  we  shall  find  many  peasants 
at  work  on  farms,  for  more  than  half  of  the  people  are 
engaged  in  agriculture.  The  farms  look  poorly  cared  for 
and  the  crops  scanty,  for  the  methods  of  farming  are  back- 
ward. The  plow  is  a  rude  affair,  which  only  scratches  the 
surface  of  the  ground,  and  the  tools  which  they  use  are  of 
the  simplest  kind. 

On  the  terraced  hillsides  of  rich  red  soil  in  southern 
Spain  the  vineyards  stretch  for  miles,  and  here,  in  the 
autumn,  we  shall  find  nearly  all  the  inhabitants  at  work. 
The  dark-eyed,  barefooted  children,  half  hidden  behind 
baskets  of  luscious  fruit,  look  shyly  at  us  as  we  pass.  We 
meet  donkeys  with  huge  baskets  of  grapes  swung  from 
either  side,  and  clumsy  oxcarts  filled  to  overflowing  with 
the  juicy  clusters.  These  will  probably  be  put  through  the 
wine  press  and  made  into  wine.  "  Sherry  "  is  the  English 
name  given  to  the  kind  of  wine  originally  made  in  the 
vicinity  of  Jerez,  which  you  may  find  on  the  map,  on  the 
coast  of  southwestern  Spain. 

On  the  southern  coast,  a  little  farther  to  the  east,  lies  the 
city  of  Malaga.  This  name  reminds  us  of  the  Malaga  grapes 
and  raisins  which  are  shipped  in  great  quantities  from  that 


330 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 


city.  Here  and  also  at  Almeria  we  may  see  the  peasants 
picking  great  bunches  of  the  dehcious,  greenish- white  fruit. 
This  is  packed  in  powdered  cork,  which  resembles  sawdust, 
and  is  put  mto  small  kegs  for  shipment.    In  the  sunny 


)  Underwood  &  Underwood 

Fig.  139.     "On    the    Terraced    Hillsides    of   Rich    Red    Soil   in 
Southern  Spain  the  Vineyards  stretch  for  Miles" 


harbor  we  see  vessels  bound  for  many  different  countries, 
all  of  them  carrying  as  a  part  of  their  cargo  great  quantities 
of  Malaga  grapes,  some  clusters  of  which  may  furnish  a 
part  of  your  dessert  at  Thanksgiving  or  Christmas  dinner. 


GRAPES  AND  WINE 


331 


\^J  tnderwood  &  UiuIltv  wua 

Fig.  140.    Perhaps    Some    Clusters    may   furnish   a   Part    of    the 
Dessert  at  your  Thanksgiving  Dinner 

As  we  go  from  the  city  of  Malaga  out  into  the  country 
we  shall  pass  by  many  fields  filled  with  shallow  trays  in 
which  grapes  are  drying  in  the  sun.  In  this  drying  process 
they  will  be  changed  from  the  juicy  fruit  into  the  sweet 


V 


332 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  —  EUROPE 


brown  raisins  for  whicii  Malaga  is  famous.  It  is  possible 
that  some  of  these  also  in  the  plum  pudding  or  mince  pie 
may  add  to  the  pleasure  of  your  Thanksgiving  dinner, 
though  it  is  more  likely  that  the  raisins  which  your  mother 
buys  come  from  California.  Not  many  years  ago  nearly  all 
the  raisins  used  in  the  United  States  were  brought  from 

Europe,  chiefly  from 
Spain ;  now,  how- 
ever, California  fur- 
nishes the  greater 
part  of  the  many 
million  pounds  which 
we  use  in  a  year. 

Not  far  distant 
from  Malaga  is  the 
famous  fortress  of 
Gibraltar.  Under  its 
frowning  walls  we 
will  take  a  steamer 
for  Oporto,  the  great 
wine  port  of  Portu- 
gal. As  we  land  at 
the  pier  we  see  many 
of  the  small-framed,  dark-complexioned  natives  loading  a 
vessel  bound  for  England  with  barrels  of  the  dark  red 
wine,  which  years  ago  was  called  port  by  the  wine  mer- 
chants of  London.  The  name  is  now  used  for  similar  kinds 
of  wine  made  in  other  countries,  though  that  made  from 
the  grapes  raised  in  the  vineyards  on  the  banks  of  the 
Douro  River  is  considered  superior  to  all  others,  and  it  is 
only  in  this  one  area  that  the  real  port  wine  is  made. 


)  Underwood  &  Underwood 

Fig.  141.    Planting  a  Vineyard 


GRAPES  AND  WINE  333 

In  the  Middle  Ages  the  Duuio  was  famous  for  the 
gold  that  was  found  in  its  bed.  To-day  it  is  far  more 
widely  known  for  the  chief  product  of  the  country,  port 
wine.  The  fruit  produced  in  other  localities  does  not 
have  the  same  flavor.  The  soil  and  the  climate  peculiar 
to  this  region  enable  the  farmers  to  produce  a  sweet, 
juicy  grape  which  cannot  be  equaled  elsewhere.  For  more 
than  twenty  miles  along  the  river,  and  for  two  or  three 
miles  back  into  the  valley,  stretch  the  acres  of  low  vine- 
yards. Everybody  raises  grapes.  Everybody  works  in  the 
vineyards.  Lofty  mountains  protect  the  valley  from  the 
damp,  chill  winds  of  the  ocean  on  the  west,  and  other 
ranges  rise  to  the  north  and  east.  The  vines  pruned  to  a 
height  of  four  or  five  feet  cover  the  precipitous  hillsides, 
which  the  peasants  by  hard  labor  have  terraced  from  top 
to  bottom. 

September  is  the  vintage  time,  and  then  the  laborers  from 
other  provinces  flock  into  the  district  in  great  numbers. 
Every  one  is  busy  in  the  vineyards.  Men  and  women, 
old  people,  and  children  help  to  gather  the  grapes.  In 
some  of  the  more  remote  villages  the  young  men,  a  dozen 
or  more  at  a  time,  leap  with  bare  feet  into  the  great  stone 
vats  where  the  grapes  have  been  put.  Some  one  strikes 
up  a  lively  air,  and  the  men,  placing  their  hands  on  each 
other's  shoulders  to  keep  their  balance,  tread  out  the  juice 
of  the  grapes  to  the  time  of  the  music.  It  is  tiresome 
work,  and  cannot  be  kept  up  for  many  hours  at  a  time. 

The  wine  which  is  stored  in  casks  and  bottles  in  the 
cellars  of  Oporto  is  later  shipped  away,  by  hundreds  and 
thousands  of  gallons.  Nearly  all  the  port  wine  produced 
in  the  Douro  valley  is  exported  from  the  city  of  Oporto. 


334  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 

Many  other  products  which  are  sent  to  foreign  countries 
—  cork,  sardines,  fruits,  nuts,  and  salt  —  are  also  shipped 
from  this  city,  which  is  the  chief  commercial  center  of 
Portugal. 

In  its  course  from  Spain  the  Douro  River  breaks  through 
three  ranges  of  mountains  or  hills.  Oporto,  a  city  rather 
smaller  than  St.  Paul,  Minnesota,  is  situated  just  where  the 
river  conquers  the  last  obstacle  and  flows  onward  to  the 
ocean.  The  city  is  very  attractive  as  one  approaches  from 
the  water.  On  either  bank  rise  high,  steep  cliffs  lined  with 
houses,  tier  above  tier,  red,  yellow,  green,  and  blue,  all 
with  dull-red  roofs,  and  overhanging  eaves  so  wide  that  in 
the  old,  narrow  streets  they  nearly  meet.  On  the  highest 
hill  of  all  gleams  the  old  cathedral,  watching  over  the  city 
whose  people  are  its  charge. 

In  the  valley  the  streets  are  broad  and  straight,  with 
electric-car  tracks,  public  parks,  and  gardens.  As  we 
ascend  the  hills,  however,  to  the  older  parts  of  the  city 
we  find  narrow,  crooked  streets,  and  in  some  cases  stair- 
ways built  to  shorten  the  ascent. 

Down  near  the  wharves  are  many  red-tiled,  low-roofed 
buildings,  the  offices  of  the  wine  merchants.  The  shaggy, 
tawny  oxen  which  the  peasants  drive  in  their  clumsy  carts 
seem  to  fill  some  of  the  narrow  streets  of  this  section  of 
the  city  with  their  widespreading  horns,  and  we  are  obliged 
to  step  mto  a  low  doorway  to  avoid  them. 

There  are  factories  in  Oporto  where  cotton,  woolen, 
silk,  and  linen  goods  are  made,  also  gold  and  silver  wire, 
glass,  leather,  and  lace.  We  should  find,  too,  large  tobacco 
factories  and  soap  works.  In  the  harbor  are  many  vessels 
from  different  countries,  bringing  to  the  little  country  the 


GRAPES  AND  WINE  335 

materials  for  these  manufactures  and  for  other  needs  of 
the  people,  such  as  cotton,  wool,  silk,  flax,  machinery,  tools, 
grain,  and  coal,  and  carrying  across  the  water  the  products 
of  her  vineyards  and  cork  forests. 

Though  Portugal  is  a  small  country,  only  a  little  larger 
than  Maine,  much  of  its  surface  is  covered  with  vineyards. 
Nearly  half  of  the  wine  product  is  shipped  to  Great  Britain. 
If  we  should  visit  the  Madeira  Islands,  which  belong  to 
Portugal,  we  should  find  there  Madeira  wine  ready  for 
shipment  to  the  same  place,  for  the  English  are  the  best 
wine  customers  of  Portugal. 

Let  us  next  go  to  Italy.  There  are  so  many  interestmg 
places  in  this  country  that  we  hardly  know  which  to  visit 
first.  We  should  like  to  study  its  wonderful  ruins  and 
beautiful  cathedrals.  If  time  allowed  we  would  go  to  Pisa 
and  see  its  queer  leaning  tower.  We  would  visit  the 
quarries  where  the  Carrara  marble,  the  whitest,  finest  mar- 
ble in  the  world,  is  obtained.  We  would  go  to  the  farms 
where  millions  of  silkworms  are  raised,  and  watch  them 
spinning  their  queer  cocoons.  We  would  see  the  peasants 
braiding  straw  for  the  hats  which  may  later  be  sold  in 
your  home  city.  We  would  linger  again  before  the  fas- 
cinating store  windows  where  dainty  coral  chains  are  for 
sale,  and  admire  the  beautifully  colored  Venetian  beads. 
But  we  shall  have  no  time  for  any  of  these  things,  for  we 
are  to  visit  instead  the  festooned  vineyards  and  watch  the 
merry  pickers  —  men,  women,  and  children  —  gathering 
the  ripened  clusters  of  fruit.  The  songs,  the  merry  voices, 
the  gay  colors  of  the  women's  dresses,  the  golden  brown 
of  the  vine  drapery,  the  rich  purple  or  delicate  greenish- 
white   grapes,  the  full  baskets   and  the   loaded  wagons, 


336 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 


make  a  sight  that  once  seen  is  never  forgotten.  If  we 
follow  the  loads  of  grapes  to  the  waiting  wine  presses,  we 
might  see,  in  some  out-of-the-way  places,  the  peasants,  bare- 
legged and  barefooted,  or  perhaps  with  heavy,  hobnailed 
shoes,  treading  out  the  purple  juice  in  the  old-fashioned  way, 
but  in  all  modern  wineries  this  is  now  done  by  macMnery. 


'V  T'l.li-runn.l  *  Tmlcrwood 

Fig.  142.   The  Making  of  Wine  Casks  is  an  Important  Occupation 

The  proportion  of  land  in  Italy  which  is  covered  by 
vineyards  is  greater  than  m  any  other  country,  and  the 
amount  of  wine  produced  is  enormous,  amounting  in  one 
year  to  more  than  a  billion  gallons.  It  is  hard  to  imagine 
such  an  immense  quantity.  Suppose  we  try  to  build  a 
tank  to  hold  it  all.  You  will  hardly  believe,  unless  you 
do  the  problem  for  yourself,  that  if  your  tank  is  twenty 


GRAPES  AND  WINE  337 

feet  in  diameter,  you  will  have  to  make  it  more  than 
eighty  miles  long  to  hold  the  wine  that  is  made  in  Italy 
in  one  year. 

A  large  proportion  of  this  tankful  of  Italian  wine  is 
shipped  to  France,  where  it  is  mixed  with  French  wines. 
Immense  quantities,  however,  are  consumed  at  home,  for 
nearly  everybody  in  Italy,  not  only  men  but  the  women 
and  children,  drinks  wine.  Even  the  poorest  peasants,  who 
drink  a  cheap  variety  costing  only  a  few  cents  a  gallon, 
look  upon  it  as  a  necessary  part  of  their  daily  meals. 

The  vineyards  of  France  lie  in  river  valleys  or  on 
sunny  slopes  of  the  hills.  Hung  with  the  great  clusters 
of  delicate  fruit  they  are  as  famous  in  story  and  poem 
as  they  are  important  in  industry  and  commerce.  France 
produces  annually  about  one  third  of  the  world's  suppl3\ 
If  we  should  try  to  put  this  immense  quantity  into  hogs- 
heads, we  should  find  that  before  the  last  one  was  filled 
we  should  have  six  rows  of  hogsheads  end  to  end 
stretching  from  Boston  across  the  United  States  to  the 
Pacific  coast,  with  enough  left  to  reach  one  tliird  of  the 
distance  again. 

After  reading  these  statements  you  will  not  be  surprised 
to  learn  that  the  wine  made  in  southern  France  is  of  more 
value  than  all  the  other  products  of  that  region  put  together. 
So  high  is  its  reputation  that  great  quantities  from  other 
countries  of  Europe  and  from  Algeria  are  imported  into 
France  only  to  be  exported  again  as  French  wane.  Of  all 
the  wine  contained  in  the  six  long  rows  of  hogsheads,  that 
in  two  rows  only  is  shipped  out  of  the  country.  The  rest  is 
consumed  by  the  French  people,  for  they  drink  it  with  their 
meals  as  we  do  milk  or  tea.    But  although  you  do  not 


338  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 

approve  of  the  custom  of  wine  drinking,  you  must  not 
think,  because  of  the  amount  produced  and  used  in  France 
or  in  other  European  countries,  that  the  people  are  neces- 
sarily dissipated  or  drunkards,  for  they  use  comparatively 
little  of  the  stronger  intoxicating  liquors.  A  Frenchman 
and  his  family  regard  wine  at  meals  as  we  do  our  tea  or 
coffee,  and  are  accustomed  to  it  from  childhood. 

The  vine  is  grown  nearly  everywhere  in  France,  but 
three  regions  are  especially  noted  for  the  excellence  of  the 
wine  produced.  One  is  in  the  upper  Rhone  valley,  one  in 
the  district  of  Champagne,  in  the  northeastern  part  of  the 
country,  and  one  in  western  France,  near  Bordeaux,  the 
largest  wine-shipping  port  in  the  world.  The  city  is  situ- 
ated near  the  junction  of  the  Garonne  and  Gironde  rivers, 
about  sixty  miles  from  the  ocean,  and  is  connected  by  canal, 
railroad,  and  river  with  the  Mediterranean  Sea  and  with 
the  manufacturing  cities  of  France. 

Ordinarily  thousands  of  people  find  employment  in  the 
French  vineyards  where  are  grown  the  small  dark  grapes 
from  which  champagne  is  made.  The  champagne  region, 
however,  lies  in  the  part  of  France  where  so  much  destruc- 
tion was  caused  by  the  war.  Hundreds  of  acres,  once 
covered  with  thrifty  vineyards  which  were  the  chief  sup- 
port of  the  inhabitants  of  dozens  of  villages,  lie  barren,  a 
mass  of  upheaved  earth  and  deep  shell  holes.  As  France 
recovers  from  the  awful  damage  done  to  her  industries, 
one  can  see  again  the  women  and  children,  in  their  wooden 
shoes,  short  skirts,  and  queer-looking  caps,  working  in  the 
vineyards  —  weeding  and  hoeing  the  vines  and  gathering 
the  fruit.  Hundreds  of  men  prune  and  tend  the  vines,  set 
the  poles  which  support  them,  and  plant  new  vineyards. 


GRAPES  AND  WINE  339 

Many  others  work  in  the  bottle  and  cork  factories,  for 
milhons  of  bottles  and  corks  must  l)e  made  each  j^ear  to 
hold  the  wine  crop  of  France. 

The  northeastern  part  of  France,  wliich  for  four  years 
was  overrun  by  millions  of  fighting  men,  included  about 
a  fifth  of  the  entire  country,  an  area  equal  to  that  of 
Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island,  and  Connecticut.  In  this 
area  besides  the  farms  which  \vere  laid  waste  and  the 
homes  destroyed,  there  were  twelve  hundred  churches 
demolished,  fifteen  hundred  schools,  and  more  than  one 
thousand  mills,  factories,  and  other  manufacturmg  estab- 
lishments.   Such  is  the  result  of  war. 

In  tliis  devastated  part  of  France  lay  not  only  some  of 
her  finest  vineyards  and  richest  farms,  but  here  also  were 
the  coal  and  iron  mines  where  a  large  part  of  her  mineral 
product  was  obtained.  Around  these  mineral  deposits  had 
grown  up  many  of  her  most  important  manufacturing 
cities.  There,  too,  mines  and  factories  alike  were  destroyed, 
and  many  years  must  elapse  before  the  prosperity  of  sorely 
stricken  France  returns  in  full. 

The  eastern  boundary  of  France  is  different  from  what 
it  was  before  the  World  War.  Here,  between  Germany 
and  France  lie  Alsace  and  Lorraine.  These  two  provinces 
were  formerly  a  part  of  France,  but  at  the  end  of  the 
Franco-Prussian  War,  in  1871,  they  were  annexed  by  Ger- 
many and  made  a  part  of  her  territory.  France  never  gave 
up  the  hope  of  possessing  them  again,  and  in  the  treaty 
at  the  close  of  the  World  War,  in  1919,  they  were  given 
back  to  her. 

Alsace  and  Lorraine  are  about  three  fourths  as  large  as 
Massachusetts.    In  this  region  there  are  thousands  of  acres 


340  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 

of  deep  forests,  iron  mines  so  valuable  that  Germany  could 
probably  never  have  prepared  for  the  great  war  had  she 
not  possessed  them,  valuable  potash  and  coal  mines,  splen- 
did vineyards,  and  fertile  farms  and  pasture  lands. 

Strassburg  and  Metz  are  the  two  important  cities  of 
Alsace  and  Lorraine.  Both  places  are  situated  in  river  valleys 
on  important  routes  between  Germany  and  France.  Strass- 
burg is  much  the  larger  city  of  the  two.  It  is  located  on 
a  little  river  about  two  miles  from  the  Rhine  and  com- 
mands the  most  important  route  over  the  Vosges  Moun- 
tains between  Paris  and  the  Rhine  River.  For  this  reason 
it  has  always  been  strongly  fortified.  Like  many  other 
European  cities,  parts  of  Strassburg  are  centuries  old. 
Other  parts  of  the  city  are  modern,  for  in  the  war  between 
France  and  Germany  which  ended  in  1871  the  bombard- 
ment destroyed  many  buildmgs  which  have  since  been  re- 
placed by  new  ones.  The  ancient  cathedral  of  the  city, 
which  was  four  centuries  in  building,  still  stands.  Its  tall 
spire  reaches  more  than  four  hundred  and  sixty  feet  toward 
the  sky.  In  this  famous  old  cathedral  is  the  wonderful 
clock,  parts  of  which  were  built  more  than  five  hundred 
years  ago.  This  ancient  timepiece  contains  a  perpetual 
calendar  and  an  arrangement  which  shows  the  position 
and  movements  of  the  planets.  When  the  clock  strikes 
the  hour,  the  figures  of  Christ  and  the  apostles  come 
into  view. 

Strassburg  is  an  important  manufacturing  city.  You 
can  find  what  its  chief  products  are  by  consulting  any 
cyclopaedia.  There  is  one  very  odd  manufacture,  not  so 
important  as  others,  but  one  for  which  the  city  is  famous. 
Can  you  imagine  a  city  making  and  exporting  each  year 


® 


Fig.  143.  Facade  of  the  Cathedral  at  Rheims 

From  Robinson,  Breasted,  and  Beard's  "  Outlines  of  European 
History,"  Part  I 


841 


342 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 


hundreds  of  thousands  of  dollars'  worth  of  goose-liver 
pie  ?  Strassburg  is  noted  for  tliis  pie  which  is  commonly 
known  as  pdte  de  foie  gras.  By  wliich  name  do  you 
think  you  would  rather  call  it  ?  Many  of  the  peasants  in 
the  country  around  Strassburg  raise  geese  to  supply  the 
number  needed  m  the  manufacture  of  this  famous  pie. 


Fig.  144.  Just  out  of  School  in  Alsace 


One  of  the  important  cities  in  the  champagne  district  of 
France  is  Rheims.  In  1914  it  contained  considerably  more 
than  a  hundred  thousand  people.  Four  years  later  only 
about  eight  thousand  inhabitants  were  living  in  the  ruins 
of  the  city.  Its  famous  cathedral,  built  in  the  thirteenth 
and  fourteenth  centuries,  with  its  lovely  rose  window  of 
stained  glass,  was  riddled  with  holes,  and  parts  of  the  roof 


GRAPES  AND  WINE 


343 


and  walls  were  demolished.  The  streets  of  the  city  were 
filled  with  brick  and  stone,  and  the  industries  of  the  region 
were  destroyed. 

Under  tlie  city  of  Rheims  and  in  the  area  around  there 
are  deep  chalk  beds  in  which   there  are  miles  of  caves. 


Fig.  145.    In    tiie     I^ixtKix    arouxd    Rheims    there    are    Miles    of 

Caves  hollowed  out  of  the  Deep  Chalk  Beds 

From  "  World's  Commercial  Products  " 

These  are  very  cool  all  the  year  round  and  have  been  used 
for  many  years  by  the  wine  merchants  to  store  their  wine  in. 
We  have  spoken  of  the  wine,  raisins,  and  currants  made 
from  grapes.  Large  quantities  of  vinegar  are  made  from 
wine.  Besides  these  more  important  products,  there  are 
many  by-products,  as  they  are  called,  which  are  manufac- 
tured in  greater  and  greater  quantities  each  year,  as  people 


344  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 

learn  more  of  the  value  of  waste  material.  In  many  indus- 
tries this  is  now  carefully  used  instead  of  being  thrown  away. 

The  pulp  and  skins  left  in  the  vats  after  the  fermented 
juice  is  drawn  off  are  called  pomace.  This  is  used  to  a  con- 
siderable extent  in  making  cheap  wines  and  in  the  manu- 
facture of  brandy.  In  some  regions  the  pomace  serves  as 
a  food  for  cattle. 

After  the  pomace  is  dried,  the  stems,  skins,  and  seeds  of 
which  it  is  composed  are  separated.  The  seeds  are  the  most 
valuable  and  are  sometimes  fed  to  horses,  cattle,  or  poultry 
in  the  place  of  oats  or  other  grain.  By  crushing  them  a 
valuable  oil  is  obtained ;  this  is  similar  to  olive  oil  and  is 
used  for  much  the  same  purposes.  There  is  also  made 
from  the  seeds  a  substance  which  is  used  in  tanning  skins 
and  making  them  into  soft  leather. 

While  the  juice  is  fermenting,  a  powder  known  as  tartar 
is  deposited  on  the  sides  of  the  vats.  From  this  the  cream 
of  tartar  and  baking  powder  used  in  cooking  are  made. 
We  import  annually  from  Europe  several  million  dollars' 
worth  of  this  useful  material. 

It  is  estimated  that  if  all  the  waste  from  the  wine  crop 
were  utilized,  the  products  made  from  it  would  equal  one 
tenth  of  the  value  of  the  wine  itself.  This  is  worth  sev- 
eral hundred  million  dollars  annually,  so  by  proper  use 
of  the  waste  there  might  be  an  additional  income  in  wine- 
producing  countries  of  many  million  dollars. 

Though  many  grapes  are  raised  in  different  parts  of  our 
country,  it  is  hard  for  the  people  of  the  United  States,  even 
those  of  the  chief  grape-producing  sections,  to  realize  what 
the  industry  means  to  the  peasants  of  European  countries. 
In  many  regions  the  vineyard  is  the  sole  means  of  support, 


GRAPES  AND  WINE  345 

and  every  member  of  the  family  feels  the  necessity  of  giving 
it  the  best  of  care  from  the  time  when  the  new  shoots  put 
forth  in  the  early  spring  till  the  last  cluster  is  gathered  in 
the  autumn.  Tlie  farms  are  small,  very  much  smaller  on 
the  average  than  those  in  our  country,  and  every  inch  of 
space  is  used,  if  not  for  the  vines,  then  for  the  vegetables 
which  form  a  large  part  of  the  peasants'  food,  for  the  grain 
for  the  cattle,  the  flax  for  spinning,  or  the  mulberry  trees 
for  the  silkworms. 

The  French  farmer  is  usually  thrifty  and  saving,  and 
he  works  under  more  favorable  conditions  than  the  peas- 
ants do  in  some  other  European  countries.  These  com- 
fortable circumstances  are  due  in  great  measure  to  the 
Frenchwoman,  for  she  is  more  of  a  helper  and  less  of  a 
slave  in  that  country  than  in  the  others.  She  works  in  the 
fields  with  the  men,  cares  well  for  the  house,  and  often 
takes  entire  charge  of  the  small  income.  She  is  not  only  the 
business  manager  of  the  household,  but  she  is  a  good  cook 
as  well,  making  nourishing  meals  out  of  articles  which  we 
should  think  of  little  use.  In  her  spare  minutes  she  spins 
and  weaves  the  wool  or  flax  for  clothing,  makes  exquisite 
lace  or  delicate  embroideries  which  fetch  high  prices,  and 
in  many  ways  increases  the  income  of  the  household. 

TOPICS  FOR  STUDY 

I 

1.  History  of  vine  culture. 

2.  Manner  of  growth. 

3.  Festivals  of  the  vine. 

4.  Varieties  and  uses  of  grapes. 

5.  Vineyards  on  the  Rhine  River. 

6.  The  vine  industry  in  Spain  and  Portugal. 


346 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 


7.  The  industry  in  Italy;  in  France. 

8.  Results  of  the  war  in  northeastern  France. 

9.  Alsace  and  Lorraine. 

10.  By-products  of  the  wine  industry. 

11.  Dependence  of  the  peasants  on  their  vineyards. 

II 

1.  Sketch  a  map  of  Europe  and  color  all  the  wine-producing 
countries. 

2.  Write  a  list  of  the  principal  manufactures  of  Spain ;  of  the 
principal  industries  of  Portugal. 

3.  Trace  the  route  from  Malaga  to  London ;  to  New  York  City. 

4.  Name  the  country  from  which  you  think  each  of  the  imports 
mentioned  on  page  o'So  will  be  brought  to  Portugal.  Name  in  each 
case  the  waters  sailed  on  and  the  shipping  port. 

5.  Sketch  a  map  of  France  and  show  the  three  great  wine- 
producing  sections.    Show  also  the  rivers  and  cities  mentioned. 

6.  Reread  Chapter  VII  and  tell  how  the  cork  stoppers  for  the 
wine  bottles  are  made. 


Ill 

Be  able  to  spell  and  pronounce  the  following  names.  Locate  each 
place  and  tell  what  was  said  of  it  in  this  and  in  any  previous  chapter. 
Add  other  facts  if  possible. 


Algeria 

Champagne 

Rheims 

Australia 

Lorraine 

St.  Paul 

Balkan  Peninsula 

Strassburg 

California 

Almeria 

Venice 

England 

Bordeaux 

Fi-ance 

Boston 

Douro  River 

Germany 

Carrara 

Garonne  River 

Great  Britain 

Jerez 

Gibraltar 

Italy 

London 

Gironde  River 

Portugal 

Malaga 

Madeira  Islands 

Spain 

Metz 

Mediterranean  Sea 

United  States 

Oporto 

Rhine  River 

Pai-is 

Rhone  River 

Alsace 

Pisa 

Vosges  Mountains 

CHAPTER  XVIII 
ITALY  AND  MACAROXI 

If  bread  is  the  staff  of  life  in  tlie  United  States,  macaroni 
surely  holds  a  similar  position  in  Italy.  In  that  country 
every  one,  rich  and  poor,  high  and  lo^v,  eats  macaroni. 
Boiled  in  salted  water  it  furnishes  the  main  food  of  the 
very  poor.  Served  with  cheese  or  tomato  or  in  some  other 
way,  it  is  often  found  on  the  tables  of  the  higher  classes. 

Though  much  of  the  macaroni  which  is  imported  into 
the  United  States  is  made  in  large  factories,  great  quantities 
are  made  in  the  homes  of  the  peasants.  ^  In  some  of  the 
villages  near  Naples,  before  almost  every  door,  one  can  see 
the  long,  yellowish-white  strings  of  paste  hanging  from 
bars  supported  by  two  poles.  A  traveler  in  Italy  describes 
as  follows  the  makiiig  of  macaroni : 


These  towns  are  dependent  on  the  manufacture  of  the  "pastas," 
as  the  various  types  of  macaroni  are  called,  and  hand-worked  mills 
stand  side  by  side  with  those  run  by  steam,  all  squeezing  out  long 
strings  of  yellow  paste,  which  are  cut  and  hung  up  on  poles  to  dry. 
The  housetops,  courtyards,  narrow  streets,  and  hillsides  are  covered 
with  thousands  of  reed  poles  bending  under  the  weight  of  yellow 
macaroni,  and,  scattered  over  the  ground  on  mats,  lie  different  sorts 
of  short-shaped  pastas. 

The  process  of  manufacture  seems  exceedingly  simple, 
but  there  may  be,  for  all  that,  secrets  of  the  trade.  The 
wheat  is  ground  into  a  coarse,  sharp,  granular  product,  less 

347 


348 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 


fine  and  soft  than  flour,  called  semolina.  This  is  put  through 
sieves  to  remove  the  undesirable  parts  of  the  grain. 

The  sifted  semolina  is  then  put  into  a  square  iron  mixer 
furnished  in  the  bottom  with  screw-shaped  fans  with  which 
to  stir  the  paste.  Boiling  water  is  added,  and  the  dough  is 
kneaded  for  about  seven  or  eight  minutes.    The  mass  is 


Fig.  146.  ^'  Narrow  Streets  and  Hillsides  are  covered  with 
Thousands  of  Reed  Poles  bending  under  the  Weight  of  Yellow 

Macaroni" 
From  "  World's  Commercial  Products" 

then  put  on  a  flat,  circular  board  and  kneaded  by  two  sharp- 
edged  parallel  beams  which  rise  and  fall  as  the  table  turns 
and  which  press  into  the  dough  as  they  descend.  A  few 
muiutes  of  the  kneading  are  sufficient,  and  the  dough  is  then 
put  into  a  cylinder  in  which  a  piston  descends  upon  the 
mass,  forcing  it  in  strings  slowly  through  the  perforated  plate 
at  the  bottom.    In  fifteen  mmutes  many  gallons  of  dough 


ITALY  AND  MACARONI 


349 


are  changed  into  thousands  of  feet  of  yellow  macaroni.  The 
color  is  produced  by  the  use  of  saffron,  which  is  used  in  very 
small  quantities. 

As  soon  as  the  strings  of  fresh  paste  which  issue  con- 
tinually from  the  die  are  of  proper  length,  they  are  cut  and 
thrown  over  a  reed  pole  and  carried  into  the  sunlight,  if  the 


Fig.  147.    A  Macakum  Factoky 
From  "World's  Commercial  Products" 

weather  is  fair,  or  into  sheltered  terraces  protected  by  cur- 
tains from  the  rain  if  the  weather  is  unfavorable.  On  bright 
days  the  strings  of  macaroni  are  exposed  to  the  sunlight 
about  two  hours.  They  must  be  dried  only  slightly  before 
being  put  for  the  night  into  dark  cellars. 

For  twelve  hours  or  more  the  poles  of  macaroni  are  kept 
in  these  damp  places,  until  the  dough  has  become  moist  and 
pliable  again,  and  the  strings  have  lost  the  brittleness  which 


350  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  —  EUROPE 

the  exposure  to  the  sunhght  gave  them.  From  the  cellars 
the  poles  are  carried  to  storehouses  open  on  all  sides  to  the 
air.  Here  in  great  masses  of  millions  of  strings  the  maca- 
roni hangs  for  several  days,  the  time  depending  on  the 
weather.  This  drying  process  toughens  the  brittle  paste 
and  fits  it  to  withstand  rough  handling  without  breaking 
into  small  pieces. 

When  the  macaroni  is  thoroughly  dried  it  is  packed  for 
shipping  in  light  wooden  boxes.  On  the  roads  around 
Naples  one  may  see  many  carts  piled  high  with  such  boxes 
and  all  headed  for  the  city.  The  mule  or  the  small  Italian 
horse  seems  not  a  whit  discouraged  by  the  huge  load  be- 
hmd  him  nor  by  the  fierce  heat  of  the  bright  Italian  sun. 
When  his  master  stops  to  refresh  himself  at  some  tavern 
on  the  road,  the  horse  satisfies  his  hunger  by  nibbling  at 
the  bunch  of  straw  which  is  tied  for  that  purpose  on  the 
end  of  one  of  the  shafts. 

Let  us  follow  one  of  these  teams  along  the  dusty  road 
into  Naples,  the  largest  city  of  Italy.  It  is  densely  popu- 
lated, and  the  narrow  streets  are  filled  with  people,  loaded 
mules,  heavy  handcarts,  and  queer-looking  vehicles.  The 
milkman  drives  his  goats  from  house  to  house,  milking 
them  at  his  customer's  doorway.  The  ear  is  deafened  with 
the  shrill  cries  of  peddlers  advertising  their  wares,  with 
the  high-pitched  voices  of  loiterers,  and  with  the  screams 
of  children  at  play.  Black-haired,  wrinkle-faced  women 
gather  on  the  doorsteps  and  in  the  streets,  and  work  or 
gossip  away  the  hours.  The  children  and  babies  are  in  evi- 
dence everywhere  —  in  the  crowded  streets,  sprawling  in 
the  gutters,  sunning  themselves  comfortably  in  the  dirt. 
They  are  ragged  and  filthy,  yet  their  faces  are  those  wliich 


ITALY  AND  MACARONI 


351 


artists  love  to  paint.  They  have  large  dark  eyes,  w&vy 
black  hair,,  and  velvet  cheeks  such  as  a  ballroom  belle 
might  envy.  Italian  children  are  beautiful,  but  the  beauty 
soon  fades  and  the  grown  people  are  not  very  attractive. 
The  store  windows  are  fascinating,  and  we  linger  before 


)  Underwood  &  Underwood 

Fig.  148.    Black-Haired,  Wrinkle-Faced  Women  gather  on  the 
Sidewalks  or  in  the  Streets 


them  lookmg  at  the  strings  of  pink  coral  and  at  the  combs 
and  other  articles  made  of  the  richly  colored  tortoise  shell 
which  are  displayed  in  such  profusion. 

The  harbor  of  Naples  is  very  beautiful.  The  water  of 
the  bay  rivals  in  color  the  clear  blue  of  the  sky.  The 
gleaming  roofs  and  spires  of  the  city  stand  out  sharp  and 


352  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  —  EUROPE 

clear  in  the  bright  Itahan  sunshine,  while  in  the  distance 
looms  the  ever-threatening  Vesuvius.  Dark  smoke  issues 
from  its  crater  as  if  the  mountain  were  continually  frown- 
ing at  the  city  for  darmg  to  be  so  bright  and  gay  in  the 
face  of  its  own  gloomy  appearance. 

Many  vessels  sail  from  the  harbor  of  Naples  to  the 
United  States,  and  thousands  of  boxes  of  macaroni  form  a 
part  of  their  freight.  More  than  two  thirds  of  the  six  mil- 
lion dollars'  worth  manufactured  annually  in  Italy  and 
half  as  much  more  made  in  the  United  States  are  needed 
to  supply  the  demands  of  our  country.  If  this  immense 
quantity  were  distributed  among  the  people  of  the  United 
States  it  would  supply  every  man,  woman,  and  child  with 
about  a  pound  a  year.  This  is  very  little,  however,  com- 
pared with  the  amount  that  the  people  of  Italy  eat,  for  in 
that  country  the  average  annual  consumption  is  between 
five  and  six  pounds. 

You  are  probably  wondering  where  all  the  wheat  is 
raised  from  which  such  great  quantities  of  macaroni  are 
made.  Good  macaroni  cannot  be  made  from  all  kinds  of 
wheat.  A  hard  variety  called  durum  wheat  is  the  best 
for  the  purpose,  and  the  Italians  use  this  kind  almost  en- 
tirely. They  do  not  like  macaroni  made  from  a  softer 
wheat,  and  for  this  reason  they  would  not  enjoy  much 
that  is  made  in  the  United  States. 

Durum  wheat  does  not  grow  well  in  Italy,  but  it  flour- 
ishes on  the  great  plams  of  southern  Russia,  and  the  greater 
part  of  that  which  Italy  imports  comes  from  that  country 
and  from  far-away  Australia. 

You  have  heard  of  the  dreadful  famines  that  sometimes 
visit  Russia  when  her  crops  fail,  of  the  sufferings  of  the 


ITALY  AND  MACARONI  353 

peasants,  and  of  the  mpaiy  deaths  which  result.  In  such 
years  there  is  little  wheat  to  ship  abroad,  and  Italy  has  to 
look  elsewhere  to  supply  her  macaroni  factories.  Durum 
wheat  is  now  raised  successfully  in  the  United  States,  and 
large  quantities  are  sent  every  year  to  Naples.  In  years  of 
Russian  famine,  however,  our  exports  are  greatly  increased, 
millions  of  bushels  from  our  farms  making  up  the  short- 
age from  Russia.  Many  Italians,  however,  do  not  consider 
our  wheat  as  good  as  that  which  comes  from  the  "  black 
earth"  region,  and  as  it  is  more  expensive  they  do  not  as 
yet  purchase  from  us  in  as  great  quantities  as  they  do  from 
their  eastern  neighbor.  If  we  can  supply  suitable  wheat  at 
a  lower  price  than  Russia  can  furnish  the  same  quality,  we 
shall  find  a  good  market  for  it  in  Italy. 

The  making  of  macaroni  has  grown  to  be  an  industry  of 
considerable  importance  in  the  United  States.  At  first  it 
was  used  only  by  the  Italian  and  French  residents,  but  now 
it  is  eaten  by  all  classes.  It  takes  more  than  one  hundred 
fifty  factories  manufacturing  many  million  pounds,  besides 
our  imports  of  twice  as  much  more,  to  supply  the  macaroni 
needed  for  our  home  consumption  and  for  export.  Many 
of  the  factories  are  in  New  York,  Philadelphia,  and  San 
Francisco,  and  the  remainder  are  scattered  in  various  places 
throughout  the  country. 

In  wandering  tlirough  the  streets  of  Naples  we  are  not 
only  fascinated  by  the  coral  and  tortoise-shell  ornaments,  but 
astonished  as  well  at  the  quantity  displayed  for  sale.  An 
animal  so  small  that  the  skeletons  of  thousands  would  be 
required  to  cover  a  surface  no  larger  than  one's  hand  would 
seem  too  unimportant  to  mention,  yet  many  vessels  and 
hundreds  of  men  sail  from  Mediterranean  ports  to  obtain  the 


354  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  —  EUROPE 

skeletons  of  the  tiny  coral  polyp.  Coral  looks  more  like  a 
flower  than  an  animal  and  formerly  was  thought  to  belong 
to  the  vegetable  kingdom.  Each  polyp  consists  of  but  little 
more  than  a  round,  hollow  body  with  a  mouth  at  the  top, 
and  a  fringe  of  feelers  or  arms  surrounding  it.  It  lives  for 
a  short  time  and  only  m  warm,  clean  water  where  the  current 
will  supply  it  with  the  food  that  it  needs  to  build  its  skele- 
ton, which  at  its  death  settles  to  the  bottom  of  the  ocean. 
Upon  this  skeleton  others  build,  leaving  theirs  in  turn  as 
a  foundation  for  still  others.  Thus  the  structure  is  in  time 
built  up  near  the  surface  of  the  water.  The  waves  and 
storms  break  off  much  of  the  stony  material,  which,  with  sea- 
weed, soil,  and  other  ocean  debris,  gradually  raises  the  for- 
mation above  the  surface  of  the  water,  and  coral  islands  are 
built.  Many  of  these  have  grown  to  a  great  size.  The  Great 
Barrier  Reef  of  Australia,  which  stretches  for  a  thousand 
miles  along  the  eastern  coast,  with  its  top  but  a  short  distance 
below  the  surface  of  the  water,  is  the  largest  in  the  world. 

Conditions  in  wliich  coral  can  live  and  work  are  found  in 
parts  of  the  iNIediterranean  Sea,  especially  near  the  coasts 
of  Sicily  and  Sardinia,  and  on  the  north  African  shore. 
Some  of  the  coral  found  in  Italian  workshops  comes  also 
from  the  Pacific  Ocean,  near  Japan.  Coral  fishing  in  Italy 
is  done  by  fleets  of  rather  small  boats,  most  of  which  start 
from  Torre  del  Greco,  a  place  of  some  thirty-five  thou- 
sand people,  located  about  six  miles  from  Naples.  Let  us 
accompany  the  fleet  to  the  coasts  of  Tunis  and  Tripoli, 
where  most  of  the  Italian  coral  is  obtamed. 

Tlie  apparatus  which  the  Italian  fishermen  use  in  obtain- 
ing coral  is  very  simple  and  looks  to  our  eyes  like  some 
wortliless  material  fit  only  for  the  junkman.    It  consists  of 


ITALY  AND  MACARONI  355 

a  wooden  cross  made  of  heavy  beams  to  which  are  attached 
pieces  of  old  nets  and  untwisted  rope  ends.  The  men  lower 
this  queer  contrivance  from  the  boat  and  drag  it  along  the 
sea  floor.  The  branching  coral  becomes  entangled  in  the 
nets  and  ropes  and  is  broken  off  and  drawn,  with  the  fish- 
ing apparatus,  to  the  surface. 

There  is  little  resemblance,  however,  between  the  rough 
branches  of  coral  piled  on  the  Italian  fishing  boats  and  the 
smooth,  delicate  pmk  beads  which  you  so  admire.  We  will 
follow  the  cargo  into  a  shop  at  Naples  and  see  how  coral 
ornaments  are  made. 

The  room  which  we  have  entered  is  small  and  poorly 
lighted.  A  swarthy  Italian  in  the  farther  corner  is  sortmg 
out  the  coral  from  a  pile  before  him.  Though  it  all  looks 
very  much  the  same  to  our  inexperienced  eyes,  he  separates 
it  mto  several  grades,  laying  the  finest,  choicest  pieces  care- 
fully by  themselves.  Another  workman  is  cutting  into 
pieces  some  coral  from  which  beads  are  to  be  made  and  is 
drilling  the  hole  for  the  thread.  Near  the  door  is  still 
another  worker,  who,  with  a  small,  curious  file,  rounds 
each  piece  into  shape.  His  work  seems  more  difficult  than 
the  others,  and  his  skill  is  greater,  for  the  bead  that  he 
fashions  out  of  the  rough  block  of  coral  must  be  true  and 
even.  A  wrinkled  old  woman  near  the  bead-maker  holds 
up  for  our  inspection  a  dull  bead  which  he  has  just  handed 
to  her.  She  polishes  it  vigorously  with  pumice  and  water 
until  it  begms  to  show  the  smooth  pink  surface  desued. 
After  a  further  polishing  with  a  preparation  of  chalk  and 
water  she  holds  it  up  again  for  us  to  see.  Its  surface  is 
smooth  and  clear  and  of  the  most  damty  pink  tinge.  This 
is  a  valuable  bead  and  will  be  put  with  others  of  the  same 


356  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  —  EUROPE 

delicate  shade  to  make  a  beautiful  string  which  will  be  sold 
for  one  hundred  fifty  or  two  hundred  dollars.  Much  cheap 
imitation  coral  is  made  of  celluloid  and  other  materials,  but 
the  real  coral  of  the  best  quality  and  color  is  very  expensive. 

Other  cities  in  Italy  besides  Naples  are  interested  in 
the  coral  industry,  Genoa  and  Leghorn  particularly  so.  In 
Genoa  it  is  said  that  six  thousand  workmen  are  employed 
in  fashioning  the  damty  coral  ornaments. 

Tortoise  shell  is  obtained  from  a  S23ecies  of  sea  turtle 
which  lives  in  the  ocean  near  the  East  and  West  Indies, 
Australia,  and  Africa.  Thousands  of  dollars'  worth  of  shell 
is  imported  into  Italy  each  year  and  there  made  mto 
combs,  paper-knives,  and  other  articles,  which  are  sold 
chiefly  to  tourists.  The  rough  shell  is  first  scraped  and 
then  sawed  mto  pieces  of  the  desired  size  and  shape.  If 
a  handle  of  a  knife  or  paper  cutter  is  to  be  made,  several 
pieces  must  be  welded  together.  This  is  done  by  placing 
the  pieces  one  upon  the  other,  wrapping  them  in  a  wet 
cloth,  and  putting  them  between  pieces  of  wood.  The 
whole  package  is  then  placed  between  plates  of  hot  iron 
and  pressed  for  about  ten  minutes,  when  it  looks  to  an 
mexperienced  eye  like  a  single  piece  of  shell.  After  this 
comes  the  polishing  with  pumice  and  a  brisk  rubbing  with 
oil  to  produce  the  beautiful,  smooth  finish  which  makes 
tortoise-shell  ornaments  so  much  admned. 

We  can  hardly  leave  Italy  without  a  peep  at  Rome,  its 
capital,  a  city  famous  for  what  it  has  been  rather  than  for 
what  it  is.  Wherever  we  go  we  are  reminded  of  its  ancient 
glory  and  power,  when  this  city  on  the  seven  hills  overlook- 
ing the  yellow  Tiber  was  the  center  of  the  Roman  Empire, 
which  controlled  nearly  all  the  known  world. 


ITALY  AND  MACARONI  357 

Great  triumphal  arches  built  to  commemorate  Roman 
victories  are  still  standing.  We  may  also  see  remains  of  old 
aqueducts  which  carried  the  water  to  the  baths  where  the 
people  spent  so  much  of  their  time,  and  the  ruins  of  the 
fountams  from  which  gushed  the  pure  water  that  flowed 
down  from  the  hills  around  the  city.  Ruins  are  everywhere. 
Perhaps  the  most  interesting  one  of  these  is  the  Forum, 
where  the  ancient  Romans  held  their  assemblies  to  discuss 
public  questions.  Guides  point  out  the  very  spot  where 
Mark  Antony  delivered  the  funeral  oration  over  the  body  of 
the  great  Caesar.  Do  you  know  the  oration  as  Shakespeare 
gives  it  ?    It  begins  : 

Friends,  Romans,  countrymen,  lend  me  your  ears- 
Very  beautiful  indeed  are  the  ruins  of  the  Colosseum, 
a  magnificent  building  formerly  capable  of  seating  nearly 
fifty  thousand  people.  In  this,  the  largest  theater  in  the 
world,  somewhat  like  the  modern  stadium,  gladiators  fought; 
and  lions,  tigers,  and  other  wild  beasts  tore  at  each  other's 
throats  or  at  those  of  the  Christian  martyrs,  for  the  enter- 
tainment of  the  brutal  Romans. 

Among  the  three  hundred  or  more  churches  in  the  city 
is  St.  Peter's,  the  very  largest  church  in  the  world,  yet  so 
wonderfully  planned  and  built  that  one  scarcely  realizes  its 
immense  size.  Close  at  hand  is  the  Vatican,  the  home  of  the 
Pope,  the  head  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  His  is  the 
largest  residence  m  the  world,  and  one  in  which  we  might 
very  easily  be  lost  if  allowed  to  wander  alone  through  the 
hundreds  of  courts,  halls,  chapels,  and  rooms. 

The  Rome  of  to-day  is  of  very  little  importance  compared 
with  the  ancient  city,  and  its  trade  and  commerce  are  of 


358  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 

little  value.  Travelers  come  to  the  city  by  thousands  to 
study  its  ruins  and  to  learn  of  its  ancient  splendor.  Its 
manufactures  consist  chiefly  of  articles  such  as  tourists 
fancy  —  mosaic  jewehy,  pearls,  gloves,  silk  scarfs,  ribbons, 
ties,  and  pictures. 

No  city  is  held  m  greater  respect  by  any  people  than  is 
Rome  by  the  Italians.  It  is  the  home  of  the  Pope,  who  is 
the  head  of  the  church  to  which  most  of  them  belong,  and 
of  the  king  and  queen  of  Italy,  who  are  dearly  loved  by 
their  subjects. 

Italy  is  one  of  the  countries  which  fought  on  the  side  of 
the  Allied  Nations  ui  the  World  War.  You  will  be  inter- 
ested in  reading  stories  of  Italian  campaigns,  for  they  were 
very  different  from  those  on  the  other  battle  fronts.  Much 
of  the  figliting  was  carried  on  in  the  high  passes  of  the 
Alps  IMountains,  where,  much  of  the  time,  the  cold  was 
bitter,  the  snow  drifts  were  piled  high,  and  marching  had 
to  be  done  on  snowshoes.  Heavy  guns  often  had  to  be 
lifted  over  impassable  gorges  and  chffs  by  means  of  derricks 
and  other  machinery.  Time  and  again  the  Austrians  tried 
to  swarm  over  the  mountains  and  down  upon  the  rich 
plains  of  the  Po  valley,  and  time  after  time  they  were 
driven  back  by  the  brave  Italians. 

The  strain  on  the  nation  was  tremendous.  .Italy  is  not 
a  rich  country,  and  two  thirds  of  all  her  wealth  was  spent 
in  paying  the  expenses  of  the  war.  Her  industries  were 
paralyzed,  her  commerce  was  shut  off,  and  she  suffered  for 
needful  supplies.  Coal  was  one  of  these  necessities.  Little 
is  found  in  Italy,  and  she  depends  on  other  countries  to 
supply  her.  So  great  was  her  necessity  that  many  of  her 
olive  orchards,  the  chief  dependence  of  many  peasants,  were 


ITALY  AND  MACARONI  359 

cut  down.    The  olive  tree  grows  slowly,  and  it  will  be  many- 
years  before  the  Italian  farmers  recover  from  their  losses. 

Look  on  the  map  on  page  200  and  find  the  city  of  Trieste. 
It  is  situated  at  the  head  of  the  Adriatic  Sea.  Before  the 
World  War  it  was  the  chief  seaport  of  the  former  empire  of 
Austria-Hungary,  which  is  now  divided  into  several  smaller 
countries.  To-day  Trieste  is  an  Italian  port.  You  will  be 
interested  in  visiting  the  old  part  of  the  city  which  nestles 
around  the  Schlossberg,  which,  as  its  name  tells  you,  is 
the  hill  on  which  the  castle  stands.  We  will  climb  some 
of  the  narrow,  crooked  streets  to  enjoy  the  view  and  to 
explore  the  old  castle  which  stands  on  the  site  where,  cen- 
turies before,  the  ancient  Roman  capitol  stood.  Down  on 
the  plain  reaching  out  to  the  crescent-shaped  bay,  things 
are  very  different.  We  should  hardly  know  that  we  were 
in  the  same  city.  Here  are  broad  streets,  fine  modern 
buildings,  and  many  manufacturing  plants,  —  petroleum 
refineries,  iron  foundries,  soap  manufactories,  silk  mills, 
and  large  shipbuilding  yards.  It  is  her  commerce,  however, 
rather  than  her  manufactures  which  has  made  Trieste  so 
important.  Situated  at  the  head  of  the  long  sea,  at 
the  end  of  a  deep  gulf,  it  is  the  chief  southern  outlet  of 
Central  Europe  and  long  ago  outstripped  its  ancient  rival, 
Venice.  Ships  leave  the  splendid  harbor  of  Trieste  bound 
for  all  parts  of  the  world,  —  for  ports  on  the  Mediterranean 
Sea,  for  European  ports  on  the  Atlantic,  for  India,  China, 
and  other  countries  of  the  Far  East,  and  for  the  distant 
cities  of  North  and  South  America.  Fiume  is  another 
important  port  on  the  Adriatic  Sea.  This  city,  with  a  small 
surrounding  area,  forms  the  Free  State  of  Fiume,  but  the 
Jugoslavs  make  use  of  the  port. 


360  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  —  EUROPE 

TOPICS  FOR  STUDY 


1.  The  making  of  macaroni. 

2.  Description  of  Naples. 

3.  The  Bay  of  Naples  and  Vesuvius. 

4.  The  making  of  macaroni  in  the  United  States. 

5.  The  coral  industry. 

6.  Tortoise  shell. 

7.  Description  of  Rome. 

8.  Italy  in  the  World  War. 

9.  The  seaport  of  Trieste. 

II 

1.  Describe  the  process  of  macaroni-making. 

2.  Ask  your  grocer  to  let  you  see  the  labels  on  some  macaroni 
boxes  and  thus  find  out  where  it  was  made.  Make  a  collection  of 
such  labels. 

3.  Sketch  a  map  of  Italy  and  show  all  the  places  mentioned  in 
this  chapter. 

4.  Ship  a  cargo  of  wheat  from  Russia  to  Italy ;  from  Australia ; 
from  the  United  States.  Tell  the  waters  sailed  on  in  each  voyage 
and  the  shipping  and  receiving  jiorts. 

5.  Read  the  poem  "  Horatius  at  the  Bridge."  What  is  said 
in  the  poem  of  the  Tiber  River,  on  which  Rome  is  situated?  Find 
out  how  long  the  river  is.  Compare  it  with  some  river  in  the 
United  States. 

6.  In  the  days  of  Rome's  power  and  splendor  the  Tiber  was  much 
deeper  than  at  the  present  time.  How  has  the  change  in  the  river 
affected  the  city  ? 

7.  Sketch  a  map  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  Show  the  coral- 
fishing  grounds  and  all  the  Italian  cities  mentioned  in  this  chapter. 

8.  On  what  waters  will  a  vessel  sail  in  going  from  the  East  Indies 
to  Italy  ?  What  does  Italy  obtain  from  the  East  Indies  ?  What  goods 
might  be  shipped  for  a  return  cargo  ? 

9.  Find  another  city  besides  Trieste  near  the  head  of  the  Adriatic 
Sea  about  which  there  was  much  discussion  at  the  close  of  the  World 
War.    What  nation  makes  use  of  this  port? 


ITALY  AND  MACARONI 


361 


III 

Be  able  to  spell  and  pronounce  the  following  names.  Locate  each 
place  and  tell  what  was  said  of  it  in  this  and  in  any  previous  chapter. 
Add  other  facts  if  possible. 


Africa 

Australia 

Austria-Hungary 

East  Indies 

Japan 

Russia 

Sardinia 

Sicily 

Triiwli 

Tunis 

United  States 

West  Indies 


Genoa 

Leghorn 

Naples 

New  York 

Philadelphia 

Rome 

Torre  del  Greco 

Trieste 

San  Francisco 

Venice 

Fiume 


Adriatic  Sea 
Alps  Mountains 
Bay  of  Naples 
Great  Barrier  Reef 
Mediterranean  Sea 
Mount  Vesuvius 
Po  River 
Tiber  River 


CHAPTER  XIX 


THE  QUEEN"  OF  FIBERS 

Cotton  is  the  most  useful  of  fibers,  flax  the  most  durable, 
but  sillv  is  the  most  beautiful,  and  is  worthy  of  its  title, 

"  Queen."  Between  sev- 
enty and  eighty  million 
pounds  of  this  soft,  lus- 
trous fiber  are  used  an- 
nually for  making  cloth, 
ribbon,  laces,  and  thread. 
Twenty-five  thousand 
horses,  each  drawing  one 
and  a  half  tons,  would 
be  needed  to  move  this 
immense  amount.  Such 
a  team  harnessed  in 
pairs  would  make  a 
procession  more  than 
twenty   miles   long. 

To  learn  more  of  the 

origm  of  the  silk  fiber 

we  will  visit  sunny  Italy 

again,  for  it  is  one  of 

the  prmcipal  silk-producing  countries  of  Europe.   There  are 

many  villages  near  Florence,  that  beautiful  city  on  the  Arno 

River,  where  we  should  find  the  people  engaged  m  the  silk 

362 


I  Xonotuck  Silk  Co.,  Florence,  Mass. 

Fig.  149.    Silk  Fiber  is  produced  by 

Catekpillars.    Those   shown  in  this 

Picture  are  only  Half  Grown 


Nonotuck  Silk  Co..  Florence,  Mass. 


Fig,  150.    "  The  Fresh  Green  Leaves  of  the  Mulberry  Tree  " 


363 


364 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  —  EUROPE 


industry ;  and  in  all  of  them  we  should  see,  as  we  did  in 
the  towns  around  Naples,  narrow,  dirty  streets,  dark-eyed 
children  playing  in  the  gutters,  and  chattering  women 
around  the  doorways. 

The  little  village  which  we  have  selected  for  our  visit 
is  approached  tlirough  orchards  of  mulberry  trees,  where 


Fig.   161.     Think    of    the    Thousands   of   Boys   and   Gisls   whose 
Work  it  is  to  feed  the  Silkworms 

L.  O.  Howard,  Bureau  of  Entomology 


dark-eyed  boys  and  girls  are  chattering  in  their  strange 
foreign  tongue  as  they  gather  the  small,  tender  leaves.  Our 
guide,  an  intelligent  Italian  peasant,  stops  before  the  door 
of  a  low,  rude  shelter.  We  pause  in  astonishment,  wonder- 
ing if  such  a  beautiful  material  as  silk  is  really  produced 
in  such  a  place  as  this.    As  we  enter  the  low  door  we  look 


THE  QUEEN  OF  FIBERS  365 

around  for  the  silk -making  machines,  but  there  is  nothing 
in  the  building  except  dozens  of  trays  filled  with  grayish- 
colored  caterpillars.  They  are  all  busily  engaged  m  eating 
the  fresh  green  leaves  of  the  mulberry  tree,  which  the  little 
Italian  boy  at  our  side  gave  them  an  hour  or  two  ago.  The 
thousands  of  moving  jaws  which  are  munching  the  tender 
green  leaves  scattered  over  the  trays  make  a  light,  patter- 
ing noise  not  unlike  a  gentle  rain.  It  seems  hard  to  believe 
that  the  enormous  amount  of  silk  fiber  used  annually 
for  manufacturing  purposes  is  produced  by  caterpillars 
such  as  these.  Many  millions  of  the  small  creatures  are 
raised  in  China,  Japan,  Italy,  and  France.  Though  there 
are  other  countries  where  the  industry  is  carried  on,  these 
four  produce  most  of  the  world's  supply  of  raw  silk.  Think 
of  the  thousands  of  boys  and  girls  —  slant-eyed  Chinese, 
quaint  little  Japanese,  black-haired  Italians,  and  chattering 
French  children  —  whose  work  it  is  to  feed  the  silkworms, 
just  as  it  is  yours  to  wash  the  dishes,  run  errands,  or 
practice  your  music.  Think  what  immense  numbers  of 
caterpillars  there  are  in  the  silk-producing  countries  which 
must  be  fed  daily.  It  takes  on  the  average  about  twenty- 
five  hundred  worms  to  spin  a  pound  of  fiber.  To  spin 
seventy-five  million  pounds  nearly  one  hundred  ninety 
billion  silkworms  must  be  fed  and  tended.  What  an  im- 
mense number!  If  distributed  among  the  people  of  the 
United  States  each  man,  woman,  and  child  would  receive 
nearly  two  thousand  silkworms  apiece. 

The  life  of  these  curious  caterpillars  is  as  interesting  as 
their  work  is  wonderful,  and  an  acquaintance  with  them  is 
surely  worth  cultivating.  While  you  are  watching  them 
eat  I  will  tell  you  something  of  their  life  story. 


866 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 


The  worm  is  hatched  from  a  very  tiny  egg,  and  when  it 
first  crawls  out  into  the  sunhght  it  is  very  small  indeed, 
only  about  one  eighth  of  an  inch  long.  It  is  almost  black 
and  is  covered  with  dark  hairs  Avhich  disappear  as  it  grows 
older.    It  is  interesting  to  see  a  young  caterpillar  grasp  the 


•  Nonotuck  Silk  Co.,  Florence,  Mass. 

Fig.  162.    A  Silkworm  chews  the  Tender  Leaves  of  the  Mulberry 
Tree  witji  a  Sideways  Motion  of  its  Jaws 


edge  of  a  mulberry  leaf  with  eight  of  its  sixteen  legs,  and 
chew  the  tender  leaves  with  a  sideways  motion  of  its  jaws. 
The  young  worms  have  to  be  carefully  tended.  The  trays 
must  be  kept  clean,  and  fresh,  tender  pieces  of  the  mulberry 
leaves  must  be  given  to  them  several  times  a  day.  We  must 
be  quiet  as  we  watch  them,  for  they  are  sensitive  to  noise 
and  will  stop  eating  immediately  if  a  loud  sound  is  made. 


©  Nouotuck  Silk  Co.,  Florence,  Maes. 

Fig.  153,     Silkworms    like    Straw   or    Brush   on   which   to   spin 

THEIR  Cocoons 


367 


368 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 


The  worm  grows  rapidly,  and  at  the  end  of  a  month,  which 
is  the  length  of  its  life  as  a  caterpillar,  it  is  between  tliree 
and  four  inches  long.  During  these  weeks  it  spends  most 
of  its  time  in  eatmg  the  mulberry  leaves,  with  which  it  is 
fed  four  or  five  times  a  day.  Four  times  during  the  month 
it  stops  eatmg  and  takes  long  sleeps  for  nearly  two  days  at 


)  Nonotuck  Silk  Co.,  Florence,  Mass. 

Fig.  154.     "By  a  Sideways  Movement  of  its  Head  it  places  the 
Thread  so  that  it  will  not  pile  up  in  One  Place  " 


a  time.  In  these  rest  periods  it  changes  its  skin,  which  has 
become  too  small  for  its  rapidly  growmg  body.  The  skin 
breaks  at  the  nose,  and  with  a  peculiar,  twisting  motion  the 
worm  wriggles  out,  tired  and  weak  from  its  efforts.  After 
resting  it  begins  eatmg  again  faster  than  ever  to  make  up  for 
lost  time.  During  each  molting  the  worm  becomes  a  paler 
shade  until,  when  fully  grown,  it  is  a  slaty  or  cream  color. 


THE  QUEEN  OF  FIBERS  369 

In  the  last  two  or  three  days  of  its  life  the  caterpillar 
eats  greedily  and  must  be  fed  by  night  as  well  as  by  day. 
Soon  after  this  it  stops  eating,  shrinks  in  size,  and  seeks 
some  place  where  it  may  spin  its  cocoon.  It  likes  straw, 
brush,  or  small  branches  of  trees,  which  must  be  supplied  at 
just  the  right  time,  that  they  may  furnish  supports  for  the 
silken  threads  which  are  tlirown  out  by  the  busy  spinner. 


)  Nonotuck  Silk  Co.,  Florence,  Maes. 

Fig.  155.    The   Moth    loosens   the    Silken   Threads   by   a.  Liquid 
FKOM  ITS  Mouth,  parts  Some  of  the  Fibers  and  breaks  Others 

Thus  provided,  the  silkworm  begins  spinning  from  its 
mouth  a  fine  silk  thread.  By  a  sideways  movement  of  its 
head  it  places  the  thread  so  that  it  will  not  pile  up  in 
one  place.  When  beginning  the  work,  the  worm  makes 
about  sixty  movements  of  the  head  and  spins  about  ten 
inches  of  silk  in  a  minute.  After  a  few  hours  the  rate 
is  much  less  rapid  and  continues  to  decrease  until  the 
spinning  is  finished.    In  twenty -four  hours  enough  silk  has 


370 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 


been  spun  to  hide  the  body  entu-ely  from  sight,  and  in 
about  tliree  days  the  cocoon  is  completed. 

Inside  tliis  silken  covering  the  tired,  shrunken  worm, 
now  little  more  than  an  inch  long,  slips  out  of  its  skin  for 
the  last  time.    Its  new  coat,  at  first  yellowish  in  color,  soon 


©  Nonotuck  Silk  Co.,  Florence,  Mass. 

Fig.    156.    It   comes   out   into   the    Sunlight,    a   Creamy,    White- 
Winged   Miracle 


turns  brown  and  hardens.  During  the  next  few  days  a 
wonderful  change  takes  place  within  this  hard  brown  case. 
The  ten  front  legs  of  the  caterpillar  disappear,  and  four 
small,  soft  wings  are  folded  tightly  against  the  body.  Later 
the  brown  covering  breaks,  and  the  head  of  a  perfect  moth 
appears.     It  seems  wonderful  that  such  a  tiny  creature 


THE  QUEEN  OF  FIBERS 


371 


should  know  immediately  how  to  escape  from  its  prison. 
It  loses  no  time  in  setting  to  work,  and  by  means  of  a  liquid 
from  its  mouth  it  loosens  the  silken  threads  which  hold 
it  captive,  parts  some  of  the  fibers  and  breaks  others,  and 
comes  out  into  the  sunlight  a  creamy,  white-winged  miracle. 

It  enjoys  the  warm  air 
and  the  sunshine  only  a 
very  short  time,  for  it 
dies  within  two  or  three 
days  after  the  eggs  have 
been  deposited,  and  with 
the  hatching  of  the  eggs 
a  new  cycle  of  life  begins 
for  another  generation. 

In  silk-producing  re- 
gions the  mulberry  tree 
is  seldom  allowed  to  grow 
more  than  six  or  seven  feet 
high,  for  it  is  easier  to  pick 
the  leaves  from  a  low  tree. 
It  presents  oftentimes  a 
peculiar  appearance,  for, 
on  account  of  the  pruning, 
the  trunk  is  very  large 
in  proportion  to  the  top. 

The  Chinese  call  the  mulberry  tree  the  Golden  Tree, 
for  its  leaves  for  thousands  of  years  have  been  a  source  of 
great  income  to  China,  which  was  the  first  country  to  dis- 
cover the  wonderful  silk-making  power  of  the  caterpillar. 
For  hundreds  of  years  the  Chmese  were  very  jealous  of 
their  secret  of  silk  production.    It  was  a  crime  punishable 


Fig.  167.   The  Mulberry  Tree  often 

presents  a  peculiar  appearance 

L.  O.  Howard,  Bureau  of  Entomology 


372 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 


by  death  for  any  one  to  carry  the  eggs  out  of  the  country. 
Finally  two  monks  departing  for  Europe  concealed  some 
in  their  hollow  bamboo  staffs,  and  from  this  beginning  the 
industry  spread  through  the  southern  European  countries. 
China  and  Japan  lead  all  other  countries  in  the  amount 
of  raw  silk  produced,  making  each  year  one  half  or  more 

of  the  world's  supply. 
This  immense  production 
is  possible  not  only  be- 
cause ,the  climate  is  fa- 
vorable for  the  growth  of 
the  mulberry  tree  and  for 
the  rearing  of  the  worms 
but  also  because  hand  la- 
bor is  so  cheap  that  the 
silk  can  be  produced  and 
sold  at  a  very  low  price. 

The  climate  and  soil  of 
certain  parts  of  the  United 
States  are  well  adapted  to 
the  rearing  of  silkworms, 
and  raw  silk  has  been  pro- 
duced in  small  quantities 
for  many  years.  But  labor 
is  more  expensive  here  than  it  is  in  European  and  Asiatic 
countries,  and  manufacturers  find  it  cheaper  to  buy  the 
raw  silk  from  abroad.  We  purchase  from  Japan  about  half 
of  the  forty  million  pounds  that  we  use  annually,  while 
the  remainder  comes  chiefly  from  China,  Italy,  and  France. 
Let  us  now  see  how  the  fine  silk  fiber  of  which  the 
cocoon  is  made  is  changed  into  the  finished  cloth. 


)Nonotuck  Silk  Co.,  Florence,  Maes. 

Fig.  158.    A  Complete  Cocoon 


THE  QUEEN  OF  FIBERS 


373 


After  the  worms  Lave  finisbed  spinning,  the  cocoons  are 
heated  in  steam  or  hot  water.  This  kills  the  moth  which  is 
inside.  If  allowed  to  live,  it  wonld  in  a  few  days  make  a 
hole  in  one  end  of  the  cocoon  and  come  out  into  the  light 
and  air.  In  doing  this  many  threads  of  the  delicate  fiber 
would  be  broken  and  thus  be  of  little  value.    Therefore 


Fig.  169.    "After  killing  the  Chrysalidbs  the  Cocoons  are  sent 

TO  Some  Factory  not  far  away" 

L.  O.  Howard,  Bureau  of  Entomology 

the  moth  is  suffocated  instead  of  being  allowed  to  escape. 
The  cocoons  are  then  thoroughly  dried  before  being  sent 
to  the  establishments  where  the  first  process  in  tlie  manu- 
facture of  silk  takes  place.  When  the  caterpillar  was  spin- 
nmg  the  silk  for  its  snug  hiding  place,  it  made  at  the  same 
time  a  gummy  substance  which  helped  to  fasten  the  threads 
together.    Before  the  fiber  can  be  unwound  from  the  cocoon 


374  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 

this  sticky  material  must  be  softened.  Tliis  is  done  by 
putting  the  cocoons  mto  hot  water.  Formerly  the  peasant 
on  his  own  little  farm  soaked  liis  cocoons  and  unwound  or 
reeled  off  the  silk  tlu-eads  by  hand.  By  this  method  the 
best  workmen  could  reel  only  a  few  ounces  a  day.  The 
thread  was  often  broken  by  this  clumsy  work,  and  the  fiber 
was  not  smoothly  and  evenly  wound  for  spinning.  To-day, 
after  killmg  the  chrysalides,  the  cocoons  are  sent  to  some 
factory  not  far  away,  where  the  work  can  be  done  both 
faster  and  better  by  power.  Many  women  and  small  chil- 
dren work  m  these  reelmg  establishments  and  receive  very 
small  pay  for  a  long  day's  work. 

After  the  soaking,  the  Avorkmen  brush  the  cocoons  to  find 
the  ends  of  the  long  fibers.  Several  of  these  ends  are 
threaded  into  a  machine  which  unwmds  them  from  the 
cocoon  and  twists  them  mto  one  thread,  which  is  wound  m 
skeins  for  export.  This  is  known  as  raw  silk.  That  which 
is  imported  into  the  United  States  is  composed  usually  of 
from  six  to  ten  strands  and  is  much  finer  than  the  finest 
sewing  silk. 

Sometimes  a  fiber  three  fourths  of  a  mile  long  is  unwound 
from  one  cocoon,  though  the  usual  length  is  much  less. 
As  we  have  said,  it  takes  on  the  average  between  two  and 
three  thousand  silkworms  to  make  one  pound  of  raw  silk. 
This  quantity,  if  woven  into  material  of  a  medium  grade, 
will  make  about  ten  yards  of  cloth.  In  these  days  this 
amount  is  amply  sufficient  for  an  ordinary  dress. 

The  skems  of  raw  silk  are  packed  mto  bundles  called 
books,  which  weigh  from  five  to  ten  pounds  apiece.  These 
are  made  up  into  large  bales,  tied  up  in  cloth  and  then  in 
stout  baggmg,  and  sliipped  to  the  manufacturers. 


THE  QUEEN  OF  FIBERS 


875 


Let  us  accompany  the  bales  of  silk  from  Florence,  Italy, 
to  Lyon,  France,  for  the  value  of  silk  manufactures  in 
France  is  greater  than  in  any  otlier  country.  The  voyage 
on  the  blue  Mediterranean  is  very  enjoyable,  and  were  it 


Nonotuck  Silk  Co.,  Florence,  Ma» 


Fig.  160.     The    Skeins    of    Raw    Silk   ake    packed    into   Bundles 
CALLED   Books.     These    are    made    up    into    Large    Bales 


not  for  the  interesting  sights  that  we  know  are  awaiting 
us  in  France  we  should  be  sorry  to  have  it  end. 

The  harbor  of  Marseille  is  wonderfully  interesting  and 
is  filled  with  vessels  of  many  nations.  They  are  loaded  with 
tea  from  Chma,  corn  and  cattle  and  wine  from  Algeria, 


376  IXDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 

cotton  from  Egypt,  grain  from  Russia  and  the  United 
States,  and  silk  from  Italy,  China,  and  Japan.  Vessels 
bound  for  different  ports  are  being  loaded  at  the  wharves 
with  boxes  of  soap,  dried  fruit  and  oranges,  and  hundreds 
of  bottles  and  casks  of  olive  oil  and  wine. 

More  soap  is  made  in  Marseille  than  in  all  the  rest 
of  France,  enough,  we  should  think,  to  keep  the  whole 
world  clean.  In  former  days  it  was  said  that  the  people  of 
Marseille  were  interested  in  nothmg  but  soap  and  oil,  and 
cared  little  for  the  appearance  or  healthfulness  of  the  city. 
To-day,  however,  it  has  beautiful  streets,  wide  avenues,  and 
fine  buildings.  Its  situation  is  so  favorable  for  trade  with 
the  Mediterranean  countries  and  with  the  East  that  it  has 
grown  very  rapidly,  until  at  present  it  is  considerably  larger 
than  San  Francisco  and  is  the  leadmg  port  of  France. 

There  are  many  mills  and  factories  everywhere.  We  wish 
that  we  had  time  to  inspect  the  large  sugar  refineries  where 
the  raw  beet  sugar,  which  is  made  in  such  quantities  in 
France,  is  changed  into  the  fine  white  article  as  it  appears 
on  the  table.  We  should  like  to  know  just  what  kinds  of 
machinery  are  made  in  the  noisy  iron  and  steel  works,  and 
to  peep  inside  the  great  olive-oil  mills  of  which  you  read  in 
Chapter  XVI.  But  the  bales  of  sillc  are  our  chief  interest, 
and  as  they  are  already  reloaded  onto  another  vessel,  we 
will  continue  our  journey  with  them  up  the  Rhone  River. 

The  trip  is  very  interesting.  We  find  orchards  of  mul- 
berry trees  stretching  as  far  as  the  eye  can  see ;  these  trees 
are  so  numerous  in  this  part  of  France  that  thousands  of 
women  and  children  are  required  to  pick  the  leaves  and 
to  care  for  the  silkworms  which  feed  upon  them.  Such 
immense  quantities  of  fiber  are  needed  in  the  great  silk 


THE  QCJEEN  OF  FIBERS 


377 


manufactories  of  France  that  even  the  millions  of  silkworms 
raised  in  her  warm  valleys  cannot  supply  the  demand,  and 
she  imports  many  times  as  much  as  she  produces. 

After  a  trip  of  about  one  hundred  fifty  miles  from  the 
mouth  of  the  Rhone  we  come  to  the  city  of  Lyon,  at  the 


Fig.  161.    "Let  us  visit  One  of  the  Great  Factories" 
Courtesy  of  Cheney  Brothers,  South  Manchester,  Connecticut 

junction  of  the  Rhone  and  Saone  rivers.  Lyon  is  an  im- 
portant manufacturing  center  and  makes  more  silk  goods, 
includmg  cloth,  velvet,  and  ribbons,  than  any  other  city  m  the 
world.  Seventy-five  thousand  people  are  employed  in  this 
one  industry  in  the  city  itself  and  in  the  neighboring  villages. 
If  we  were  making  our  trip  by  land  we  should  know  when 
many  miles  distant  from  the  city  that  we  were  approaching 


378 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 


Lyon.  In  village  Jifter  village  we  should  find  the  people 
engaged  in  some  branch  of  manufacture  connected  with 
great  Lyonese  firms.  In  one  we  might  find  them  working 
at  forges  and  foundries,  in  another  on  dainty  laces,  and  in 
a  third  making  glassware.   In  the  vicmity  of  Lyon,  however, 


I  Nonotuck  Silk  Co.,  Florence,  Maes. 

Fig.  162.    The  Unwinding  of  the  Silk  from  the  Cocoon  is 

CALLED  Reeling 


more  people  are  engaged  in  making  some  form  of  silk  goods 
than  in  any  other  branch  of  manufacture. 

Let  us  visit  one  of  the  great  factories  and  see  how  the 
fine  fibers  of  raw  silk  are  spun  into  strong  thread  and  woven 
into  cloth. 

The  unwinding  of  the  silk  from  the  cocoon,  called  reel- 
ing, is  usually  done  in  the  countries  where  the  silk  is 
produced.     The  great  bales  of  raw  silk  as  they  arrive  at 


THE  QUEEN  OF  FIBERS  379 

the  manufactory  are  first  sorted  according  to  quality.  The 
fiber  is  then  soaked  for  several  hours  in  warm  soapsuds, 
and  after  being  dried,  is  ready  for  the  real  manufactur- 
ing processes.  These  are  many  and  complicated,  as  you 
would  think  if  you  visited  a  silk  mill,  and  we  shall  not 
attempt  to  describe  them  all.  One  of  the  first  processes 
is  "  throwing."  The  word  "  throw "  comes  from  an  old 
Saxon  word  which  means  "  to  twist,"  and  the  throwing 
of  silk  fiber  consists  of  a  series  of  operations  in  which  the 
thread  is  first  wound  and  cleaned,  then  doubled  to  give 
the  desired  size,  and  twisted  to  give  strength.  The  skeins 
are  then  sent  to  the  dyer,  after  which  the  silk  is  ready  for 
the  weaving. 

In  the  early  days  of  this  industry  only  plain  goods  were 
made.  When  the  making  of  figured  patterns  was  first  in- 
troduced it  was  slow,  expensive  work.  Two  or  more  men 
were  necessary  to  run  one  loom,  and  in  order  to  make  the 
pattern  there  was  much  changing  and  readjusting  and  fix- 
ing of  the  machine.  All  this  took  a  great  deal  of  time  and 
required  much  skill  on  the  part  of  the  workmen. 

Near  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  a  French- 
man, Joseph  Jacquard  by  name,  invented  a  machine  which 
made  the  manufacturing  of  figured  goods  as  easy  as  that  of 
plain  colors.  You  know  how  weaving  is  done.  The  long  or 
warp  tlireads  are  lifted  and  lowered  so  that  the  crosswise 
threads  go  in  and  out,  in  and  out,  over  and  under,  over 
and  under,  thus  making  the  firm  cloth. 

In  the  Jacquard  loom,  by  means  of  an  ingenious  harness 
of  wires,  the  warp  threads  of  a  certain  color  are  lifted,  and 
the  right  shuttle,  controlled  also  by  the  wires,  flies  back 
and  forth  at  just  the  proper  time,  more  accurately  and 


380  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 


Fig.  163.  "The  Long  or  "Warp  Threads  are  lifted  and  lowered 
so  THAT  the  Crosswise  Threads  go  in  and  out,  iv  and  out,  over 

AND  UNDER,  OVER  AND  UNDER  " 

truly  than  if  guided  by  the  human  hand.  Almost  mirac- 
ulously, inch  by  inch,  the  pattern  of  plaids  or  checks  or 
flowers  grows.    This  invention  revolutionized  the  weaving 


THE  QUEEN  OF  FIBERS  381 

industry,  for  figured  goods  —  whether  silk,  cotton,  or  woolen 
—  could  be  made  with  the  Jacquard  loom  as  easily  and  as 
cheaply  as  plain  goods. 

The  city  of  Lyon  has  been  called  an  immense  factory, 
and  the  tall  chimneys,  the  large  mills  with  the  hum  and 
jar  of  the  rapidly  moving  machinery,  the  loaded  boats  and 
cars,  make  us  realize  what  an  important  manufacturing  city 
it  is.  Not  only  silk  goods,  but  hats,  leather  boots  and  shoes, 
jewelry,  articles  of  iron  and  steel,  dyes,  and  a  variety  of 
other  goods  are  made  there  in  great  quantities. 

Why  has  Lyon  grown  to  such  a  position  in  manufac- 
turing and  commerce  ?  Study  your  map  closely  and  you 
will  find  some  of  the  reasons.  It  is  situated  at  the  junction 
of  two  navigable  rivers,  the  Rhone  leading  south  to  Mar- 
seille, and  the  Saone  stretching  northward  and  connect- 
ing with  northern  ports.  The  city  is  a  great  center  from 
which  radiate  railroads  to  Paris,  Bordeaux,  and  Marseille, 
and  to  Switzerland  and  Italy.  It  is  connected  with  north- 
ern waters  tlu-ough  the  canal  which  joins  the  Rhone  and 
Rhine  rivers,  while  other  canals  branchmg  off  from  both 
the  Saone  and  the  Rhone  connect  it  with  the  great  interior 
centers. 

Because  of  these  means  of  communication,  the  freight 
houses  and  docks  are  piled  high  with  goods  brought  from 
many  places,  —  cotton  from  the  United  States,  raw  silk 
from  Italy  and  the  East,  flax  from  Russia,  and  wool  from 
Argentina  and  Australia,  —  while  barges  brmg  from  near- 
by mines  the  coal  necessary  for  manufacturing  these  and 
many  other  products. 

On  the  great  highways  of  trade,  boats  and  cars,  loaded 
with   silk,   woolen,   and  linen  goods,   ribbons,   flour,   and 


382 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  —  EUROPE 


machinery,  depart  from  Lyon,  carrying  its  manufactures  to 
all  parts  of  France  and  to  other  countries. 

Thirty-two    miles   southwest    of    Lyon    is    St.  Etienne. 
Girls  even  more  than   boys  would   enjoy  a  visit  to  that 


Fig.    164.     The    Arch    of    Tkiumph    forms    a    Center    from    avhich 
Twelve   Fine   Boulevards   radiate 


city,  for  more  ribbons  are  made  there  —  ribbons  of  all 
widths  and  kinds,  silk,  satin,  velvet,  brocaded  —  than  in  any 
other  place  in  the  world.  Think  of  it  I  More  people  than 
there  are  in  Duluth,  Minnesota,  or  Hartford,  Connecticut, 


THE  QUEEN  OF  FIBERS  383 

or  Savannah,  Georgia,  are  engaged  in  St.  Etienne  and  its 
suburbs  in  this  one  industry. 

The  city  is  situated  near  some  of  the  richest  coal  fields 
of  France,  and  the  mines  give  employro3nt  to  thousands  of 
men.  It  is  partly  on  account  of  its  location  near  these  coal 
deposits  that  St.  Etienne  has  become  extensively  engaged 
in  manufacturing.  Many  other  articles  besides  ribbons  are 
made  in  this  busy  city.  One  third  of  the  steel  product  of 
France  is  manufactured  in  St.  Etienne.  The  national  gun 
factory,  employing  six  thousand  men,  makes  the-  weapons 
for  the  French  army ;  the  tents  of  the  soldiers  are  fastened 
down  and  the  sails  of  many  ships  raised  by  means  of  the 
rope  made  in  the  same  city. 

Paris  is  noted  more  for  its  art,  beauty,  and  fashion  than 
for  its  manufactures ;  yet  the  beautiful  silks  whicli  are 
woven  in  other  parts  of  France  have  helped  the  city  to 
reach  its  present  position  as  a  leader  of  fashion.  In  the 
shopping  district  of  Paris  one  sees  displayed  in  the  stores 
the  products  of  factories  in  St.  Etienne,  Lyon,  and  othei 
cities.  These  beautiful  fabrics  are  sent  to  Paris  from  all 
over  France  to  be  sold  or  to  be  made  into  dresses.  Great 
quantities  of  silks,  ribbons,  and  garments  are  sent  to  Eng- 
land and  to  the  United  States,  for  these  two  countries  are 
the  best  customers  of  France  for  such  goods. 

Paris  is  one  of  the  largest  and  most  beautiful  cities  of 
Europe  and  perhaps  the  gayest  of  any.  Its  streets  are  wide 
and  brilliantly  lighted,  and  its  open-air  cafes,  which  are  a 
part  of  most  restaurants  and  of  many  hotels,  are  thronged 
during  the  warm  weather  till  late  into  the  night  with  beauti- 
fully dressed  people.  The  Arch  of  Triumph,  or,  as  the  French 
people  call  it,  the  Arc  de  Triomphe,  the  largest  triumphal 


384  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 

arch  in  the  world,  is  one  of  the  conspicuous  sights  of  the 
city.  It  was  begun  by  Napoleon  to  commemorate  his  vic- 
tories and  completed  some  years  later  by  another  French 
ruler.  It  forms  a  center  from  which  twelve  fine  boulevards 
radiate  like  the  spokes  from  the  hub  of  a  wheel.  Of  these 
the  Champs  Elysees  on  one  side,  bordered  with  parks  and 
gardens  and  filled  with  carriages,  motor  cars,  and  pedes- 
trians, is  the  most  famous ;  while  on  the  other  side  of  the 
arch,  nearly  opposite,  is  the  magnificent  avenue  called  by 
the  name  of  the  beautiful  park  of  more  than  two  thousand 
acres  in  which  it  is  situated — the  Bois  de  Boulosfue.  This 
splendid  boulevard  is  more  than  four  hundred  feet  wide,  is 
deeply  shaded  by  several  rows  of  trees,  and  during  fashion- 
able hours  is  so  thronged  with  carriages,  horseback  riders, 
and  motor  cars  that  one  can  proceed  onl}'  at  a  slow  pace. 

There  are  many  places  in  Paris  which  you  would  surely 
visit  if  you  were  in  the  city.  One  is  the  ancient  cathedral, 
Notre  Dame.  Another  is  the  Louvre,  one  of  the  finest  art 
galleries  in  the  world,  where  priceless  paintings  and  famous 
sculptures  attract  thousands  of  visitors. 

There  are  many  other  European  cities,  however,  which 
are  more  directly  connected  with  the  silk  industry  than  is 
Paris,  and  which,  therefore,  we  should  like  to  visit.  One  of 
these  is  Milan,  Italy.  Most  people  go  there  to  see  the 
wonderful  white  marble  cathedral  with  its  marvelous  carv- 
ings and  its  thousands  of  statues.  Few  Americans  realize 
as  they  visit  the  city  that  it  is  one  of  the  most  important 
in  Italy  and  has  grown  more  rapidly  than  any  other  in  the 
country  in  manufactures  and  commerce.  This  is  due  very 
largely  to  the  silk  industry,  for  man}-  thousand  people  there 
find  employment  in  spinning,  thi'owing,  and  weaving  silk. 


THE  QUEEN  OF  FIBERS  385 

People  in  the  United  States  generally  know  little  about 
Genoa  except  that  it  was  the  bu-thplace  of  Columbus,  With 
this  far-off  historical  fact  in  mind  we  are  little  prepared  in 
visiting  the  city  to  find  it  the  busiest  port  in  Italy,  making 
and  shipping  not  only  silk  goods,  but  large  quantities  of 
macaroni,  paper,  soap,  oil,  and  jewelry.  The  Genoese  silks 
and  velvets  are  considered  very  fine  indeed,  ranking  in 
quality  next  to  those  manufactured  in  Lyon. 

As  Switzerland  is  so  near  Italy,  where  raw  silk  is 
easily  obtained,  the  industrious  Swiss  have  made  the  most 
of  their  advantages.  Basel  and  Zuricli  are  well  known  for 
their  silk  manufactures.  Basel  is  located  on  the  elbow  of 
the  Rhine  River  just  where  it  leaves  Switzerland  and  turns 
to  the  nortli.  When  the  train  reaches  this  city  you  miist 
be  prepared  to  open  your  bags  if  the  polite,  well-uniformed 
officials  demand  it.  This  is  a  frontier  city  on  the  boundary 
between  Switzerland  and  Germany,  and  officers  are  on  the 
lookout  to  see  if  any  goods  on  which  a  duty  should  be  paid 
are  being  smuggled  mto  the  country.  In  a  trip  through 
Europe  this  inspection  takes  place  whenever  we  pass  from 
one  country  to  another. 

You  must  not  thmk,  because  you  have  never  heard  of 
these  cities  before,  that  they  are  small  places.  Zurich  and 
Basel  are  each  larger  than  Albany,  New  York ;  Genoa, 
which  you  may  have  thought  of  as  a  small  place  inter- 
esting chiefly  for  its  historical  connections,  is  the  size  of 
Minneapolis,  Minnesota ;  while  Milan,  largest  of  all,  contains 
more  people  than  San  Francisco. 

Though  the  United  States  does  not  produce  raw  silk, 
we  lead  the  world  in  the  quantity  of  our  silk  manufactures. 
New  Jersey,   Pennsylvania,  Connecticut,  and  New  York 


386  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  —  EUROPE 

are  the  most  important  silk-manufacturing  states,  and  to 
supply  the  mills  and  factories  in  these  and  other  places  we 
import  annually  many  million  dollars'  worth  of  raw  silk. 

New  England  leads  in  the  manufacture  of  sewing  silk 
and  twist.  Look  at  the  spools  of  silk  in  your  mother's 
workbasket  and  find  the  names  of  some  of  the  important 
firms  and,  if  possible,  learn  where  the  factories  are  located. 
The  amount  of  sewing  silk  which  is  made  is  enormous. 
Twenty-five  thousand  miles  of  spool  silk,  enough  to  stretch 
completely  around  the  world,  are  required  dail}'  to  feed 
the  sewing  machines  of  the  United  States. 

It  is  wonderful,  is  it  not,  that  this  valuable  product  is 
given  to  the  world- by  a  creature  so  small  and  so  unimpor- 
tant as  a  caterpillar  ?  When  you  use  a  needleful  of  silk, 
or  tie  the  ribbon  on  your  hair,  or  notice  the  fine  display  of 
silk  in  the  windows  of  your  city  stores,  you  will  think  of 
the  millions  of  worms  in  far-away  countries  whose  patient 
toil  gives  us  the  delicate  fiber.  When  you  consider  how 
very  little  each  one  of  them  can  do  and  yet  how  valuable 
the  total  product  is,  you  will  appreciate  as  never  before 
the  value  of  little  things. 

TOPICS  FOR  STUDY 


1.  The  quantity  of  silk  fiber  used  in  manufacturing. 

2.  Raising  silkworms  in  Italy. 

3.  Life  of  a  silkworm. 

4.  Raising  silkworms  in  China. 

5.  Production  of  silk  in  the  United  States. 

6.  The  silk  industry  in  France. 

7.  Reeling  silk. 


THE  QUEEX  OF  FIBERS  387 

8.  Silk  throwing. 

9.  Silk  weaving. 

10.  The  Jacquard  loom. 

11.  Description  of  Marseille. 

12.  Description  of  Lyon. 

13.  Description  of  St.  Etienne. 

14.  Description  of  Paris. 

15.  Silk  manufacturing  in  Italy. 

16.  Silk  manufacturing  in  Switzerland. 

17.  Silk  manufacturing  in  the  United  States. 

II 

1.  Ship  a  cargo  of  raw  silk  from  China  to  France ;  from  Japan  to 
the  United  States.  Send  a  cargo  of  silk  goods  from  Switzerland  to 
the  United  States;  a  grain  ship  from  Russia  to  France.  Tell  in  each 
instance  the  waters  sailed  on,  the  shipping  and  receiving  ports,  and 
the  return  cargo. 

2.  Imagine  yourself  an  Italian  boy  or  girl  and  tell  of  your  work 
among  the  silkworms  which  your  father  owns. 

3.  Sketch  the  group  of  the  principal  silk-manufacturing  states  in 
the  United  States. 

4.  Write  a  list  of  all  the  things  that  you  can  think  of  which  are 
made  of  silk. 

5.  What  country  produces  the  most  raw  silk?  What  country 
manufactures  the  most  silk  goods?  What  country  produces  the 
most  valuable  silk  manufactures? 

6.  On  an  outline  map  of  Europe  color  the  silk-producing  coun- 
tries and  show  all  the  places  mentioned  in  the  chapter. 

7.  Contrast  the  valley  of  the  Rhone  River  with  the  province  of 
Brittany,  of  which  you  read  in  Chapter  XV. 

Ill 

Be  able  to  spell  and  pronounce  the  following  names.  Locate  each 
place  and  tell  what  was  said  of  it  in  this  and  in  any  previous  chapter. 
Add  other  facts  if  possible. 


Algeria 

China 

England 

Argentina 

Connecticut 

France 

Australia 

Egypt 

Italy 

388 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES - 

-EUROPE 

Japan 

Basel 

Paris 

New  England 

Bordeaux 

St.  Etienne 

New  Jersey 

Duluth 

San  Francisco 

New  York 

Florence 

Savannah 

Pennsylvania 

Genoa 

Zui'ich. 

Russia 

Hartford 

Switzerland 

Lyon 

Arno  River 

Turkey 

Marseille 

Mediterranean  Sea 

United  States 

Milan 

Rhine  River 

Minneapolis 

Rhone  River 

Albany 

Naples 

Saone  River 

CHAPTER  XX 
THE  COUNTRIES  OF  THE  BALKAN  PENINSULA 

Turkey 

Centuries  ago  a  horde  of  barbarians  migrated  westward 
from  Central  Asia.  They  overran  western  Asia,  conquered 
it,  and  gradually  made  theb  way  nearer  and  nearer  to 
Europe.  These  people  were  the  Turks.  They  were  not 
a  Christian  people,  but  were  followers  of  Mohammed,  a 
teacher  who  lived  about  six  hundred  years  after  the  time 
of  Christ. 

Before  the  coming  of  the  Turks  into  Europe,  the  mer- 
chants of  that  continent  had  built  up  a  great  trade  with 
Central  Asia.  This  was  before  the  discovery  of  America 
and  the  days  of  ocean  travel.  Their  commerce  was  carried 
on  over  the  Mediterranean  Sea  and  by  caravan  routes 
into  the  trading  centers  of  Central  Asia.  Here  the  Euro- 
pean merchants  were  met  by  traders  from  the  little-known 
regions  of  eastern  Asia,  —  China,  Japan,  and  India.  Goods 
of  great  value  were  exchanged,  after  which  the  European 
merchants  turned  their  caravans  westward  bearing  spices, 
perfumes,  silks,  and  other  luxuries  for  the  rich  nobles  of 
Europe.  The  coming  of  the  Turks  stopped  all  this  great 
trade,  for  the  Mohammedans  hated  and  persecuted  all 
Christians.  They  captured  and  sunk  their  merchant  vessels 
on  the  Mediterranean,  and  closed  up  their  trade  routes 

389 


390  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 

through  western  Asia.  At  the  time  this  seemed  a  great 
calamity,  but  m  the  end  much  good  came  from  it.  It 
stimulated  the  people  of  Europe  to  find  new  routes  to  the 
rich  lands  of  the  East  so  that  their  trade  might  continue. 
It  was  this  desire  that  started  Christopher  Columbus  on 
his  voyage  of  discovery.  Believing  that  the  earth  was 
round,  he  attempted  to  reach  India  and  China  by  sailing 
west.  His  theory  was  right,  but  the  earth  was  much  larger 
than  he  thought,  and  the  lands  of  the  Western  Hemisphere 
lay  in  his  way.  Five  years  after  Columbus  set  sail  to 
the  west,  Vasco  da  Gama,  with  a  similar  object  in  mind, 
sailed  around  Africa  and  thence  across  the  Indian  Ocean 
toward  the  rich  lands  of  the  East. 

Among  other  places  in  western  Asia  which  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  Turks  was  the  Holy  Land,  where  Jesus  lived 
and  died,  and  the  city  of  Jerusalem,  which  contained  his 
tomb.  To  the  Christian  peoples  of  Europe  it  seemed  a 
terrible  thing  that  the  tomb  of  Christ  should  be  in  the 
hands  of  heathen  who  believed  neither  m  him  nor  his 
teachings.  Large  armies  were  formed  to  march  to  the 
Holy  Land  and  rescue  the  tomb  of  Christ  from  the  hands 
of  the  Mohammedans.  All  the  soldiers  wore  the  cross  for 
a  badge  and  were  known  as  the  crusaders.  One  of  these 
armies  was  made  up  entirely  of  boys,  fifty  thousand  or 
more  of  them.  This  was  known  as  the  Children's  Crusade. 
A  few  of  the  boys  finally  returned  to  their  homes,  many 
stopped  by  the  way,  but  the  large  majority  of  them  either 
died  of  their  sufferings  on  the  march,  were  lost  at  sea,  or 
were  sold  in  slavery. 

The  Crusades  extended  through  two  centuries,  but  they 
were  all  unsuccessful  in   their  object.    The  Turks  grew 


COUNTRIES  OF  THE  BALKAN  PENINSULA       391 

stronger  and  spread  farther  and  farther  westward.  In  1453 
they  captured  Constantinople.  Gradually  they  extended 
their  power,  until,  in  the  seventeenth  century,  their  vast 
empire,  distributed  nearly  equally  in  three  continents,  in- 
cluded the  basins  of  the  Danube,  the  Nile,  and  the  Tigris 
and  Euphrates  rivers.  In  Europe  the  entire  Balkan  Pen- 
insula between  the  Black  and  Adriatic  seas,  as  well  as  the 
territory  north  of  the  Black  Sea,  lay  under  their  control. 

The  Turks  have  always  been  a  menace  and  a  curse 
to  the  peoples  over  whom  they  have  ruled.  Their  cruel- 
ties to  the  Christians  whose  lands  they  have  occupied 
have  been  unspeakable,  and  little  or  no  progress  has 
ever  been  made  by  any  country  which  formed  a  part  of 
their  empire. 

Gradually  their  power  has  waned,  and  their  domain  has 
slipped  away  from  them.  One  after  another  the  countries 
of  the  Balkan  Peninsula  —  Greece,  Bulgaria,  Rumania, 
Serbia,  and  Montenegro  — have  revolted  from  Turkish  rule 
and  started  life  anew  as  independent  nations.  Before  the 
World  War  all  that  remained  in  Europe  of  this  once  power- 
ful kino-dom  was  a  small  area  north  of  the  Sea  of  ]\larmora 
not  much  larger  than  Vermont  or  New  Hampshire. 

Though  the  area  of  Turkey  in  Europe  was  so  small, 
the  country  was  important  because  it  controlled  the  water 
route  between  the  Black  and  Mediterranean  seas,  and  the 
land  route  between  Europe  and  Asia.  The  great  cit}^  of 
Constantinople  lies  at  the  point  where  these  important 
commercial  routes  cross  each  other.  The  Turks  still  hold 
the  small  area  in  Europe  which  was  theirs  before  the  World 
War,  but  they  have  agreed  to  allow  the  ships  of  all  nations 
to  pass  freely  between  the  Black  and  Mediterranean  seas. 


392 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 


Only  three  cities  in  the  United  States  are  larger  than 
Constantinople.  As  we  approach  it  from  the  water  the  gilded 
domes,  the  many  turrets,  the  slender  minarets,  flash  in  the 
sunlight  above  the  clustering  housetops  and  green  foliage. 
The  sight  is  impressive,  and  this  distant  view  of  the  city 
from  the  blue  waters  of  the  harbor  is  extremely  beautiful. 

As  we  enter  the  city, 
however,  we  learn 
the  truth  of  the  old 
proverb  that  ''  all  is 
not  gold  that  glit- 
ters." The  streets 
are  narrow,  crooked, 
dirty,  and  deep  with 
mud  or  dust.  There 
is  no  system  of 
sewerage,  and  the 
filth  in  the  gutters 
is  disgusting. 

Let  us  go  for  a 
sightseeing  tour  of 
the  city.  The  thor- 
oughfares are  narrow 
and  seem  full  of  people.  In  them  we  jostle  mysterious 
veiled  women  who  are  accompanied  by  their  slaves.  We 
see  tall  priests  in  long  gowns  with  wonderful  turbans 
of  blue,  red,  or  green  wound  about  their  heads.  Water 
peddlers  with  huge  jars  make  loud,  discordant  cries  to 
advertise  their  lukewarm  beverage,  porters  carry  on  their 
shoulders  huge  boxes  and  trunks,  and  soldiers  in  gorgeous 
uniforms  ride  beautiful  Arabian  horses. 


Fig.  165. 


"  Let  l  s  go  for  a  Sightseeing 
Tour  of  the  City" 


COUNTRIES  OF  THE  BALKAN  PENINSULA       393 

We  stop  at  a  bazaar,  as  the  Turkish  shops  are  called, 
to  look  at  the  long,  slender  bottles  of  perfume  displayed 
there.  A  sleepy-eyed  Turk,  looking  for  all  the  world  as 
if  customers  were  a  nuisance  instead  of  a  blessing,  sits 
cross-legged  on  a  strip  of  matting  in  a  booth  so  small  that 
there  is  no  room  for  a  customer  to  enter.  There  are  no 
fixed  prices  m  Turkish  shops,  and  no  shopkeeper  expects 


Fig.  100.    A  Street  in  Coxstantixople 

to  get  what  he  asks  for  his  goods.  The  word  "  bazaar '' 
means  "  a  bargaining  place,"  and  its  meaning  is  Uved  up 
to  by  both  dealer  and  customer. 

Mark  Twain  has  described  one  of  these  great  bazaars 
as  follows : 

The  place  is  crowded  with  people  all  the  time,  and  as  the  gay- 
colored  Eastern  fabrics  are  lavishly  displayed  before  every  shop,  the 
Great  Bazaar  of  Stambul  is  one  of  the  sights  worth  seeing.  It  is  full 


394  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 

of  life  and  stir  and  lousiness,  dirt,  beggars,  donkeys,  yelling  peddlers, 
porters,  dervishes,  high-born  Turkish  female  shoppers,  Greeks,  and 
weird-looking  and  weirdly  dressed  Mohammedans  from  the  moun- 
tains and  the  far  provinces  —  and  the  only  solitary  thing  one  does 
not  smell  when  he  is  in  the  Great  Bazaar  is  something  which 
smells  good. 

The  shops  were  mere  hencoops,  mere  boxes,  bathrooms,  closets  — 
anything  you  jjlease  to  call  them  —  on  the  first  floor.  The  Turks  sit 
cross-legged  in  them  and  work,  and  smoke  long  pipes,  and  smell  like 
—  like  Turks.  That  covers  the  ground.  Crowding  the  narrow  streets 
in  front  of  them  ax'e  beggars,  who  beg  forever,  yet  never  collect  any- 
thing; wonderful  cripples  distorted  out  of  all  semblance  to  hu- 
manity, almost;  vagabonds  driving  laden  asses;  porters  carrying 
on  their  backs  dry-goods  boxes  as  large  as  cottages;  peddlers  of 
grapes,  hot  corn,  pumpkin  seeds,  and  a  hundred  other  things,  yell- 
ing like  fiends ;  and  sleeping  happily,  comfortably,  serenely,  among 
the  hurrying  feet  are  the  famed  dogs  of  Constantinople. 

Ill  the  World  War,  Turkey  lost  much  of  her  Asiatic 
empire.  In  1918  'an  English  army  succeeded  in  doing  what 
Europeans  in  the  IMiddle  Ages  vainly  tried  for  two  cen- 
turies to  accomplish  —  they  took  Jerusalem  and  the  Holy 
Land  from  their  jNIohammedan  rulers.  During  the  same 
war  the  tribes  of  that  part  of  western  Arabia  known  as 
Hejaz  declared  their  independence  from  Turkish  rule  and 
set  up  as  an  independent  nation.  At  the  end  of  the  war 
Palestine  was  set  apart  as  a  national  home  for  the  Jews, 
and  Syria  was  put  under  the  control  of  the  French.  More 
recently  the  Arabs  in  Mesopotamia  have  set  up  the  inde- 
pendent kingdom  of  Iraq.  To  Turkey  is  left  only  the 
peninsula  of  Anatolia,  between  the  Black  and  Mediter- 
ranean seas,  a  mere  remnant  of  the  territory  that  they 
once  possessed. 


COUNTRIES  OF  THE  BALKAN  PENINSULA       395 

Greece 

The  southernmost  part  of  the  Balkan  Penmsula  is 
occupied  by  Greece,  a  country  hirger  than  the  state  of 
Tennessee.  On  all  sides,  save  the  north,  it  is  surrounded 
by  water.  Notice  the  coast  line  of  Greece  and  the  distance  to 
which  the  long,  deep  bays  penetrate  into  the  mainland.  Can 
you  find  any  other  country  with  a  coast  so  irregular  ?  So 
deeply  is  it  cut  by  the  long  arms  of  the  ^Mediterranean  Sea 
that  no  other  country  of  equal  area  has  so  long  a  coast  line. 

Greece  is  very  mountainous  and  has  many  ranges  which 
divide  it  into  little  plains  and  valleys.  Thus  the  surface 
separated  the  people  of  one  part  of  the  country  from  those 
of  another  part,  and  helped  to  develop  a  spirit  of  inde- 
pendence •  it  also  favored  the  growth  of  rival  states  wliose 
jealousy  of  one  another  weakened  the  nation  as  a  whole. 

Greece  is  always  thought  of  as  the  home  of  the  beautiful. 
Her  ancient  buildings  and  her  statues  carvecl  centuries  ago 
come  nearer  perfection  than  those  of  any  other  land.  She 
is  famous  not  only  for  her  art  but  for  her  history  and 
philosophy.  With  the  exception  of  Palestine,  where  Jesus 
lived  and  died,  there  is  no  country  which,  in  proportion 
to  its  size  and  population,  has  had  so  great  an  influence 
on  other  nations  of  the  world. 

"  The  Glory  that  was  Greece  has  passed  away.  The 
Beauty  that  is  Greece  remains."  The  land  itself  is  one  of 
the  most  beautiful  on  earth,  beautiful  in  its  skies  and  seas, 
in  its  blue  mountains  and  green  valleys,  in  its  deep  bays 
and  long  headlands. 

Her  people  are  for  the  most  part  happy,  contented  farmers 
and  fisher  folk.    In  her  southern  peninsulas  we  should  find 


396 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  —  EUROPE 


many  little  farms  where  figs,  oranges,  lemons,  melons,  and 
other  fruit  and  vegetables  are  raised.  There  are  many  olive 
orchards  also,  with  their  gnarled,  twisted  trees,  some  of 
them  centuries  old.  The  fruit  is  one  of  the  most  important 
products  of  Greece,  and  the  making  of  olive  oil  is  one  of 
the  important  occupations.    Mulberry  trees  grow  here  also. 


k. 

■* 

•  ^'^^^VW^Ifl|lffi4,.il^^                               '^^ 

,  :im^^^^^^^^      -: 

i^ 

"■*'  ^ 

'^p»»spWft-;':.^^ 

^''^'  j^^'hBIhSm 

r 

ti'i. 

J**  »-<i*f  j^ ./-, '~         -JSp^^EB^^^^^^^^^^^^^^H^H 

mi 

wmmasSH^-:-^  -^.f^.:.^..           JMimBmi,ftm^-\..  jj 

©  Underwood  &  Underwood 

Fig.  167.   Farming  in  the  Sight  of  Wonderful  Ruins 


If  you  lived  in  southern  Greece,  it  might  be  a  part  of 
your  work  each  day  to  gather  mulberry  leaves  and  feed  the 
silkworms,  for  many  are  raised  in  some  of  the  villages. 

Wandering  through  the  country,  we  might  hear  the  far- 
off  notes  of  a  shepherd's  flute  and,  following  the  sound, 
find  on  some  green,  sheltered  slope  the  player  making 
sweet  music  while  he  tended  his  sheep  and  goats. 


COUNTRIES  OF  THE  BALKAN  PENINSULA       397 

In  the  northern  part  of  Greece  we  find  more  fields  of 
grain.  If  our  visit  were  in  the  springtime,  we  might  see 
the  farmers  plowing  their  fields  with  queer,  old-fashioned 
wooden  plows  drawn  by  oxen  with  widespreading  horns. 
In  the  autumn  the  grain  is  reaped  and  is  brought  to  the 
threshing  floor,  which  is  found  in  every  village.  These  hard 
stone  floors  are  very  old,  and  the  grain  from  the  fields  around 
has  been  threshed  on  them  for  centuries.  The  grain  is  spread 
out,  and  the  patient  oxen  walk  slowly  back  and  forth,  back 
and  forth,  treading  out  the  seeds  from  the  straw. 

There  are  many  interesting  things  to  see  in  a  Greek 
village.  We  like  to  linger  near  the  fountain  and  watch 
the  women  who  gather  there.  The  scene  remmds  us  of 
tales  which  we  have  read  about  ancient  Greece,  for  the 
fountain  and  the  water  jars  which  the  women  carry  might 
be  the  very  ones  described  in  the  story. 

We  have  spoken  of  the  deep  bays  and  the  many  penin- 
sulas of  southern  Greece.  This  entire  part  of  the  country 
was  once  a  peninsula.  Look  on  your  map  and  see  how 
near  the  Gulf  of  Corinth  on  the  west  comes  to  the  Gulf 
of  JEgina,  on  the  east.  Southern  Greece  was  formerly  tied 
to  the  mainland  by  the  narrow  strip  of  land  between  these 
indentations.  To-day  this  part  of  the  country  is  an  island 
instead  of  a  peninsula.  A  waterway  called  the  Cormthian 
Canal  has  been  cut  through  between  the  two  gulfs.  Cen- 
turies ago  when  Greece  was  under  the  control  of  the  Roman 
Empire,  the  emperor  Nero  began  a  canal  at  this  place.  It 
was  never  completed,  however,  until  the  Corinthian  Canal 
was  made  in  1893. 

Find  on  your  map  the  city  of  Corinth  at  the  western  end 
of  the  canal.    The  ruins  of  the  ancient  city  of  this  name  lie 


898  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 

about  four  miles  away.  Here  lived  the  Corinthians  to  whom 
St.  Paul  wrote  centuries  ago.  You  can  read  his  very  letters, 
his  "  Epistles  to  the  Corinthians,"  in  the  New  Testament. 

Corinth  reminds  us  of  currants,  for  the  word  "  currant " 
comes  from  Corinth.  The  vines  which  bear  the  little  black 
grapes  which  your  mother  uses  for  cakes  and  puddings 
grow  in  this  part  of  Greece  and  were  formerly  shipped 
from  the  city  of  Corinth.  Hence  their  name.  More  of 
them  are  shipped  to-day  from  Patras,  the  largest  city  of 
southern  Greece,  near  the  mouth  of  the  gulf.  Dried  cur- 
rants are  the  chief  export  of  Greece,  and  thousands  of  the 
Greek  people  depend  for  a  living  on  the  vineyards  that  pro- 
duce them.  Millions  of  pounds  are  exported  from  Greece 
every  year,  many  of  them  to  the  United  States. 

The  world-famous  city  of  Athens,  named  for  the  goddess 
Athena,  lies  near  the  end  of  one  of  the  long  peninsulas  of 
southern  Greece.  The  blue  sky,  the  pure  air,  the  temperate 
climate,  the  fertile  soil  on  the  plains  around,  the  harbors, 
and  the  easy  communication  both  by  land  and  water,  all 
favored  the  growth  of  the  city.  In  ancient  times  Athens 
was  the  very  heart  of  Greece  and  the  center  of  learning 
of  the  known  world.  If  a  city  to-day  is  noted  for  the 
learning  and  culture  of  its  people  or  for  its  educational 
institutions,  it  is  often  called  the  Athens  of  the  country 
in  which  it  is  situated.  One  cannot  see  Athens  and  look 
upon  its  wonderful  ruins  without  thinking  of  its  glorious 
past.  A  visit  here  makes  one  eager  to  know  more  of 
Greek  history,  to  become  acquainted  with  her  famous  men 
such  as  Lycurgus,  the  great  lawgiver,  Pericles,  the  states- 
man, Alexander  the  Great,  the  famous  general,  Phidias, 
the  great  sculptor,  and  many  others. 


COUNTRIES  OF  THE  BALKAN   PENINSULA       399 

Thermopylae  is  one  of  the  places  made  famous  by 
Greek  history.  The  Persians  at  different  times  attempted 
to  conquer  Greece  and  make  it  a  part  of  then-  own  great 
empire.  You  have  all  heard  of  the  battle  at  Thermopyke, 
where  in  a  narrow  pass  three  hundred  Spartans  held  back 
the  whole  Persian  army.  Thousands  of  the  enemy  were 
slain,  and  the  brave  Spartans  might  have  been  victo- 
rious in  keeping  them  back,  had  not  a  traitor  shown  the 
Persians  a  narrow  footpath  which  led  over  the  heiglits 
to  the  other  end  of  the  pass  in  which  the  Greeks  were 
fighting.  Even  then  brave  Leonidas  and  his  little  band  of 
three  hundred  refused  to  give  up,  and  fought  on  until  all 
were  killed. 

Another  famous  battle  was  fought  against  the  Persians 
on  the  plains  of  Marathon,  twenty-five  miles  from  Athens. 
When  reading  about  these  events  remember  that  they  took 
place  centuries  ago,  several  hundred  years,  even,  before  the 
birth  of  Christ. 

Speaking  of  Marathon  reminds  one  of  the  Marathon 
races.  Perhaps  you  will  be  more  interested  in  these  and 
in  the  other  games  held  in  Greece  than  in  anything  else 
connected  with  the  country. 

The  ancient  Greeks  were  lovers  of  beauty  and  did  every- 
thing in  their  power  to  make  not  only  their  buildings  and 
statues  beautiful  but  also  to  develop  the  human  body  and 
make  it  strong  and  beautiful.  Therefore  they  w^ere  very 
athletic  and  fond  of  all  kinds  of  sports.  Every  four  years 
they  held  what  were  called  the  Olympic  Games,  and  men 
came  from  all  over  the  country  to  take  part  in  them.  People 
journeyed  even  from  other  lands  to  see  them.  The  victors 
were  crowned  with  laurel  wreaths  and  were  more  famous 


400 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  —  EUROPE 


for  a  time  than  the  emperor  himself.  Finally,  in  the  fourth 
century,  one  emperor,  thinking  that  these  games  were  a 
relic  of  the  time  when  Greece  was  a  pagan  rather  than 
a  Christian  nation,  put  an  end  to  them,  and  for  about 
fifteen  hundred  years  no  Olympic  games  were  held. 


•  Underwood  &  Underwood 

Fig.  168.    The  Modern  Stadium  in  Athens  is  a  Wonderful 

Structure 

In  1896  a  wealthy  man  offered  to  rebuild  the  stadium 
if  the  games  would  be  restored.  This  modern  stadium 
in  Athens  is  a  wonderful  structure,  seating  sixty  thou- 
sand people.  The  athletes  to-day  are  not  all  Greeks,  but 
come  from  many  different  countries.  There  are  contests  in 
jumping,  running,  discus-throwing,  shot-putting,  shooting, 


COUNTRIES  OF  THE  BALKAN  PENINSULA       401 

swimming,  and  wrestling.  In  most  of  these  events  American 
athletes  have  been  represented,  and  in  many  cases  they  liave 
carried  off  the  prizes. 

Marathon  is  twenty-five  miles  from  Athens.  One  of  the 
most  eagerly  contested  events  is  the  foot  race  between  the 
two  places.  The  winner  of  the  Marathon  race  is  considered 
a  greater  hero  than  all  the  other  victors.  He  is  crowned, 
carried  in  processions,  and  given  many  gifts  and  privileges. 
I  wonder  if  any  boy  now  in  school  who  reads  these  pages 
will  ever  be  the  winner  of  the  Marathon  race. 


BULGAELA 

One  of  the  lost  provinces  of  Turkey  is  Bulgaria,  a 
country  about  as  large  as  Pennsylvania.  It  is  a  beautiful 
region  of  blue  mountains,  of  broad,  fertile  valleys,  of  little 
rivers,  of  rich  pastures,  of  abundant  water  power,  and  of 
deep  forests. 

Its  people  are  hardworking,  capable  farmers,  who  have 
done  much  to  improve  their  condition  and  to  educate 
themselves,  after  the  centuries  of  misrule  and  oppression 
which  they  suffered  under  the  Turk.  There  are  few  rich 
people  in  the  country,  and,  had  it  not  been  for  the  wars 
which  for  many  years  took  the  men  from  the  industries 
and  caused  much  suffering,  there  would  be  few  very  poor 
people.  The  needs  of  the  Bulgarian  peasant  are  simple  ones, 
and  most  of  them  can  be  supplied  from  their  little  farms. 
Agriculture  is  the  most  important  occupation.  Three  fourths 
of  the  people  are  farmers  and  till  their  own  land.  Much 
of  their  work  is  carried  on  by  very  different  methods  from 
those  which  are  practiced  on  farms  in  the  United  States. 


402  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  —  EUROPE 

The  plows  are  made  all  of  wood  and  are  very  different 
from  those  used  by  the  farmers  in  our  country,  the  iron 
points  of  which  dig  deeply  into  the  soil  and  give  it  a 
thorough  overturning.  This  clumsy,  one-handled,  wooden 
implement  which  the  peasant  uses  to-day  is  the  same  as 
his  ancestors  have  always  used.  The  buffalo  and  ox,  or 
in  northeastern  Bulgaria  the  camel,  plod  slowly  back  and 
forth  across  the  dusty  field  draggmg  the  plow  in  its  shal- 
low furrow,  as  buffalo  and  ox  and  camel  have  done  in 
these  Eastern  lands  for  many  centuries.  Some  modern 
farm  machinery  has  been  introduced  into  Bulgaria  by  the 
cooperative  societies  to  which  many  of  the  farmers  belong. 
These  implements  are  rented  to  individuals  who  could  not 
afford  to  buy  such  expensive  tools  for  themselves. 

As  in  most  countries  in  Europe,  the  Bulgarian  farmers 
live  in  villages  and  often  go  several  miles  to  their  work 
in  the  fields.  The  little  houses  of  the  village  are  small 
and  have  few  comforts  according  to  our  way  of  thinking. 
The  women  at  work  in  the  fields,  the  lack  of  modern  tools, 
the  coarse  food,  all  indicate  a  backward  condition  of  life. 
It  is  much  better,  however,  than  it  was  under  Turkish 
rule,  much  progress  has  been  made,  and,  given  a  few  years 
of  peace,  when  the  men  can  work  on  their  farms  and  in 
the  factories  of  the  cities  mstead  of  spending  their  time 
in  fighting,  killmg,  and  being  killed,  we  shall  see  a  great 
difference  in  conditions  in  Bulgaria. 

Already  her  farm  crops  are  important.  As  in  Hungary 
and  Jugoslavia,  the  Bulgarian  plains  of  the  Danube 
valley  are  famous  for  their  wheat  and  corn.  Barley,  oats, 
and  rye  are  also  raised.  Rape  is-  raised  for  its  seed  and 
hemp  for  its  fiber,  which  is  made  into  rope  in  the  large 


COUNTRIES  OF  THE  BALKAN  PENINSULA       403 

rope  factories  near  Sofia.  In  a  trip  througli  the  country 
we  can  see  also  fields  of  sugar  beets,  and  tobacco,  its  big 
leaves  completely  hiding  the  ground  from  sight.  In  the 
shade  of  the  oak  forests  and  in  the  sunny  open  pastures 
the  boys  and  girls  tend  the  flocks  of  sheep  and  goats,  the 
pigs,  and  the  cattle.  Around  the  little  cottages  we  see 
poultry  feeding  and  bees  buzzing  about  the  hives.  In 
parts  of  the  country  there  are  many  nmlberry  trees,  and 
here  we  might  see  trays  filled  with  silkworms  feeding  on 
the  tender  mulberry  leaves. 

We  notice  that  many  of  the  women  and  some  of  the 
men  wear  clothes  on  which  there  is  beautiful  embroidery. 
Wonderful  needlework  is  done  by  some  of  the  Bulgarian 
peasant  women.  So  fine  and  even  are  the  stitches  that 
often  it  is  impossible  to  tell  the  right  side  from  the  wrong. 

There  are  few  manufactures  in  Bulgaria.  Some  textile 
and  leather  factories,  some  woodworking  and  furniture 
establishments,  a  little  silk  weaving,  and  a  few  other  in- 
dustries are  about  all  that  we  should  find  that  are  of 
much  importance.  Bulgaria  doubtless  will  always  be  an 
agricultural  country,  but  with  the  development  of  the 
water  power,  and  the  centralizing  of  the  industries  in 
towns  and  cities,  manufacturing  will  in  the  future  grow 
in  importance. 

We  are  so  young  among  the  nations  of  the  world  that 
it  is  hard  for  us  to  understand  and  appreciate  the  age  of 
many  European  cities.  Sofia,  the  handsome  capital  of  Bul- 
garia, is  centuries  old.  It  was  used  by  the  Romans  when 
they  controlled  so  much  of  Europe.  It  was  a  prosperous 
town  in  the  ninth  century  when  it  was  captured  by  the 
Bulgars.    A  hundred  years  before  Christopher  Columbus 


404  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 

sailed  from  Spain  across  the  Atlantic,  Sofia  was  captured 
by  the  Turks.  Save  for  a  short  time,  the  city  and  the  coun- 
try remamed  in  their  hands  for  more  than  four  centuries, 
until  1878  when  Bulgaria  gained  its  independence. 

Sofia  is  beautifully  situated  on  a  rolling  plain  nearly  two 
thousand  feet  high,  within  sight  of  lofty  mountain  ranges. 
In  the  old  days,  when  the  Turks  ruled  the  land,  the  city 
was  but  a  poor  place  with  narrow,  crooked,  unpaved,  un- 
drained  streets  and  mean  little  houses  of  wood  and  plaster. 
Its  streets  were  unsafe,  and  no  Christian  woman  dared 
venture  out  of  doors  after  dark. 

Since  Bulgaria  has  been  released  from  Turkish  oppres- 
sion, the  capital  has  been  much  improved.  Parts  of  the 
old  Turkish  town  have  been  torn  down,  narrow  alleys  have 
been  widened  into  streets,  and  the  little  hovels  have  been 
replaced  by  modern  buildings.  A  new  cathedral,  costing 
one  and  a  quarter  million  dollars,  is  the  largest  and  finest 
structure  in  the  city.  You  would  be  interested  in  visiting 
this  cathedral,  so  different  in  its  appearance  and  decora- 
tions from  the  churches  in  our  country.  You  would  be 
interested  also  in  visiting  the  public  bath  which  is  said  to 
be  the  finest  building  of  its  kind  in  the  world.  It  is  built 
over  a  hot  spring,  the  temperature  of  which  is  one  hundred 
seventeen  degrees  and  which  has  been  famous  for  its  healing 
virtues  ever  since  the  days  of  the  Romans. 

There  is  one  occupation  carried  on  in  Bulgaria  very 
different  from  all  others  and  one  which  you  could  find  in 
very  few  other  countries  of  the  world.  This  is  the  cultiva- 
tion of  roses  to  be  used  in  that  delicious  perfume,  attar 
of  roses.  To  see  something  of  this  industry  let  us  go 
to  the   southeastern  part  of  the   countr3,^.    There   are  no 


countries'  of  the  BALKAN  PENINSULA       405 

railroads  to  take  us  there.  The  roads  are  so  deep  with 
dust  in  summer  or  witli  mud  in  winter  that  few  loads 
can  be  hauled  over  them.  A  heavy,  lumbering  ox-cart  is 
the  only  team  used  for  the  little  traffic  that  is  carried  on 
between  the  scattered  villages.  In  many  cases  horses  or 
mules  carry  the  loads  as  well  as  the  drivers  on  their  backs. 


Fig.  169.    There   are    Such    Quantities    to   be    picked   that    the 

Work  grows  Tiresome 
Courtesy  of  Antoine  Chiris  Company,  Grasse,  France 

We  pass  orchards  of  mulberry  trees  and  fields  of  wheat 
and  corn  until  at  last  we  find  ourselves  in  the  midst  of 
the  rose  bushes.  There  are  thousands  of  acres  of  them 
and  they  stretch  in  every  direction  as  far  as  we  can  see. 
Such  a  sight  we  have  never  seen  before.  Some  of  the 
bushes  are  twelve  or  fifteen  feet  high,  and  all,  large  and 


406 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 


small,  are  covered  with  fragrant  red  roses,  the  delicate  odor 
from  which  fills  the  air  for  miles  around.  Everybody  in  the 
villages  near,  young  and  old,  works  in  the  rose  gardens, 
for  they  furnish  the  chief  occupation  in  that  region.  The 
men  find  employment  m  planting  and  caring  for  the  bushes, 
and  the  women  and  children  in  gathering  the  pletals. 


f 

,  ..«-«:,-/*:^" 

^t^- 

^ 

1^ 

"^        '■* 

■-i:^\'^  ■■■'                     *;■ 

Fig.  170.    Nearly  all  the  Flower  Perfume  in  the  World  is  made 

IN  Southern  France 
Courtesy  of  Bruno  Court,  parfumeur,  Grasse,  France 

It  takes  two  hundred  pounds  of  roses  to  make  one  ounce 
of  pure  oil,  and  although  one's  fingers  fly  very  fast  indeed, 
it  takes  a  long  time  to  gather  roses  enough  to  weigh  two 
hundred  pounds.  As  the  annual  product  of  attar  of  roses 
in  Bulgaria  is  several  thousand  pounds,  you  can  imagine 
how  many  blossoms  must  be  picked  each  year. 


COUNTRIES  OF  THE  BALKAN  PENINSULA  '    407 

Pure  attar  of  roses,  as  you  may  suppose  from  the  im- 
mense quantity  of  blossoms  required  to  make  it,  is  very 
expensive  and  is  worth  several  dollars  an  ounce.  It  is, 
however,  seldom  found  pure.  All  of  that  which  is  im- 
ported into  the  United  States  is  more  or  less  adulterated 


Fig.  171.    The  Fraguance  makes  the  Air  Sweeter  than  anywhere 

ELSE  IN  the  World 
Courtesy  of  Antoine  Chiris  Company,  Grasse,  France 

with  other  oils.    The  odor  is  very  lasting  even  when  diluted, 
and  when  pure  it  will  last  for  years. 

Bulgaria  is  not  the  only  place  where  the  rose  is  cultivated 
for  the  oil  it  will  yield.  You  will  find  vast  gardens  in  India, 
where  the  very  finest  quality  of  attar  of  roses  is  said  to  be 
produced.   The  rose  gardens  in  the  Balkan  Peninsula  are  the 


408 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 


largest  in  the  world,  but  certain  towns  in  southern  France 
produce  more  perfumes  from  a  greater  variety  of  flowers 
than  are  manufactured  anywhere  else.  Let  us  leave  the  mud 
hovels,  the  poor  roads,  and  the  industrious  peasants  and  go 
to  the  Riviera,  a  very  fashionable  resort  on  the  French  coast. 


Fig.  172.   We  can  see  the  Peasant  Women  gathering  Dewy  Violets 
Courtesy  of  Bruno  Court,  parfumeur,  Grasse,  France 

Perhaps  no  two  places  could  be  chosen  which  show  a 
greater  contrast  than  the  region  we  have  visited  in  southern 
Bulgaria  and  the  gay,  beautiful  watering-place  on  the 
shores  of  the  blue  Mediterranean.  Wealth  and  rank  can 
be  seen  in  greater  display  on  the  Riviera  than  anywhere 
else  in  the  continent  of  Europe  or  perhaps  anywhere  in 
the  world.    There  are  the  finest  hotels,  the  most  expensive 


COUNTRIES  OF  THE  BALKAN  PENINSULA       409 

costumes,  the  smoothest  roads,  the  richest  shops,  and  the 
most  beautiful  gardens  that  one  can  imagine. 

Around  Grasse,  "  the  sweetest  town  in  the  world,"  there 
are  terraced  gardens  of  narcissi,  jonquils,  roses,  violets, 
heliotrope,  sweet  peas,  hyacinths,  carnations,  tuberoses,  and 
orchards  of  bitter-orange  trees.  The  beauty  of  the  gardens 
is  indescribable,  and  the  fragrance  fills  the  air  all  around. 


Fig.  173.  "The  Donkeys  laden  on  Either  Side  with  Huge  Baskets 

filled  with  the  fragrant  harvest  " 

Courtesy  of  Mr.  Adolph  Spiehler,  manufacturing  perfumer,  New  York 

Out  in  the  gardens,  if  we  are  fortunate  enough  to  be 
there  in  the  early  morning,  we  can  see  beneath  the  cool 
shade  of  the  trees  the  peasant  women  gathering  dewy 
violets,  and  the  children  in  the  sunny,  terraced  gardens 
picking  tuberoses,  while  in  the  orange  orchards  the  workers 
are  robbing  the  trees  of  their  fragrant  blossoms.  The  odor 
of  these  flowers  is  so  strong  that  it  makes  us  faint,  and  we 
are  told  that  it  sometimes  affects  even  the  regular  pickers. 


410 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  —  EUROPE 


Up  the  steep  hill  come  the  wagons  piled  high  with  their 
loads  of  sweetness,  and  the  donkeys  laden  on  either  side 
with  huge  baskets  filled  with  the  fragrant  harvest.  We  will 
follow  the  blossoms  into  the  workrooms  of  one  of  the  fac- 
tories, where  other  members  of  the  peasant  families  find 
occupation.  In  one  room  there  are  rows  of  women  sitting 
on  either  side  of  long  tables,  whose  glass  tops  are  smeared 


Pig.  174.     "  Great    Baskets   of  Freshly    Picked   Flowers   stand 

BESIDE  Each  Worker" 

Courtesy  of  Bruno  Court,  parfumeur,  Grasse,  Franca 

all  over  with  a  layer  of  pure,  white  fat.  Great  baskets  of 
freshly  picked  flowers  stand  beside  each  worker,  who  sticks 
them  one  by  one,  face  downward,  into  the  fat,  which  absorbs 
the  odor  and  retains  the  real  freshness  of  the  fragrance 
much  better  than  if  it  were  extracted  in  any  other  way. 

After  a  few  liours  the  flowers  are  removed  —  poor,  limp, 
unattractive  things,  minus  their  beauty  and  fragrance.  The 
fat  is  then  worked  over  with  a  knife  so  that  a  fresh  surface 


COUNTRIES  OF  THE  BALKAN  PENINSULA       411 

may  be  presented,  and  a  new  lot  of  the  same  kind  of  flower 
IS  stuck  upon  it.  The  process  is  continued  until  the  fat  is 
so  full  of  oil  from  the  flowers  that  it  can  hold  no  more. 

If  the  fragrant  fat  is  to  be  made  into  pomade,  it  is 
chopped  very  fine  and  then  beaten  in  huge  churns  until 
it  becomes  as  white  and  soft  as  newly  fallen  snow. 

Sometimes  the  fat,  when  saturated  with  the  flower  oil, 
is  dissolved  in  alcohol,  after  which  it  is  ready  for  use  again. 
The  perfumed  oil  of  the  blossoms  rises  to  the  top  of  the 
alcohol  in  yellowish-green  globules.  This  is  the  essential 
oil,  the  pure  extract,  which  is  diluted  or  mixed  with  other 
oils,  according  to  the  quality  or  strength  desired.  These 
pomades  and  oils  are  the  basis  of  all  perfumes  and  toilet 
waters  made  from  flowers,  and  impart  the  scent  to  many 
of  the  finer  soaps. 

More  perfumes  are  made  in  Paris  than  anywhere  else, 
though  other  European  cities  carry  on  an  important  busi- 
ness in  these  products,  and  millions  of  dollars'  worth  are 
sent  from  these  centers  all  over  the  world. 

Rumania 

Another  of  the  lost  provinces  of  Turkey  is  Rumania. 
It  is  the  largest,  the  most  northerly,  and  the  most  easterly 
of  the  Balkan  countries,  and  has  a  greater  population  than 
any  other. 

Rumania  is  one  of  the  richest  parts  of  southeastern 
Europe.  By  looking  at  the  map  you  can  see  that  the  whole 
country  lies  in  the  valley  of  the  Danube  and  that,  while  the 
western  part  is  mountainous,  in  the  eastern  and  southern 
parts  are  the  rich  rolling  plains   of  the  river.    Rumania 


412 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  —  EUROPE 


is  in  fact  a  continuation  of  the  great  Russian  plain,  the 
"black-earth"  region  of  which  you  have  read  in  another 
chapter.  In  Rumania,  as  in  Russia,  enormous  crops  of 
wheat,  corn,  barley,  and  oats  have  been  grown  on  these 

fertile  plains.  Some 
of  the  grain  pro- 
duced in  Rumania 
is  ground  in  the 
river  mills  along  the 
Danube,  but  more 
is  sent  up  the  river 
to  Budapest,  which 
manufactures  almost 
as  much  flour  as  our 
own  city  of  Minne- 
apolis. Other  grain 
raised  in  the  country 
is  shipped  down  the 
Danube  River  or  is 
exported  from  Con- 
stanza  and  other 
ports  on  the  Black 
Sea.  The  great  grain 
country  of  the  "black- 
earth"  region,  with 
Odessa  its  port,  lies  to  the  east  of  Rumania,  and  more 
wheat  is  exported  from  this  Black  Sea  area  than  from  any 
other  part  of  the  world  except  the  United  States  and  the 
Argentine  Republic. 

Not    only    the    plains    but    the    mountainous    parts    of 
Rumania  also  are   of   great  value.    The   peasants   livmg 


Fig.  175.    A  Kumaniax  I'easant  Wife 


COUNTRIES  OF  THE  BALKAN   PENINSULA       413 


on  the  slopes  and  in  the  sheltered  valleys  of  this  part 
of  the  country  raise  large  numbers  of  cattle  and  sheep. 
Here,  too,  are  large  ranches  owned  by  wealthy  nobles  and 
worked  by  peasant 
tenants. 

In  the  early  days 
of  the  World  War 
a  part  of  Rumania 
fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  Central  Powers. 
Much  of  her  live 
stock  was  killed  for 
food,  and  her  grains, 
fruits,  and  vegeta- 
bles were  of  great 
value  to  her  enemies 
who  sorely  needed 
these  supplies.  The 
product  which  was 
perhaps  of  greatest 
use  to  her  foes  was 
petroleum.  Ruma- 
nia is  one  of  the  im- 
portant petroleum- 
producing  countries 
of  the  world,  while 
neither  Germany  nor  Austria-Hungary  furnished  any 
great  amount  of  this  very  useful  material. 

Bucharest,  the  capital  of  Rumania,  is,  next  to  Constan- 
tinople, the  largest  city  in  southeastern  Europe.  It  is 
nearly  the   size   of  Washington,  but  it  is   a  much   more 


Fig.  176. 


A  Petroleum  Peddler  in 
Rumania 


414 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  —  EUROPE 


lively  city  than  our  beautiful,  dignified  capital.  It  has 
many  more  cafes,  restaurants,  and  theaters.  Its  hotels  are 
luxurious,  its  residences  handsome,  its  business  blocks 
large  and  modern.  At  night  the  city  is  very  brilliant, 
the  crowds  large,  and  the  life  gay.  One  who  sees  the 
city  only  in  the  daytime  is  not  acquainted  with  the  real 
Bucharest.    Automobiles  fly  through  its  broad,  well-lighted 


Fig.  177.    Bucharest,  Rumania 

streets.  Splendid  carriages  drawn  by  beautiful  coal-black 
Russian  horses  with  long,  flowing  manes  and  tails  can  be 
seen  everywhere. 

Yet  one  need  go  but  a  short  distance  .out  of  the  city  to 
see  a  very  different  life.  Here  are  villages  of  small  low 
houses  with  piles  of  firewood  near  by.  From  the  farmyards 
come  a  cheerful  crowing  and  gobbling  and  quacking  and 
bleating,  as  if  the  very  roosters  and  turkeys  and  ducks 


COUNTRIES  OF  THE  BALKAN  PENINSULA       415 

and  sheep  were  trying  to  keep  up  with  the  merriment  of  the 
great  city  not  far  away.  The  oxen  chew  their  cuds  while 
peacefully  resting  under  the  shade  of  the  willows  and  alders, 
and  the  creaking  wheels  of  the  clumsy  ox-wagon  beside  them 
are  silent  for  the  moment.  In  the  little  houses  with  their 
mud  floors  the  women  spin  their  thread  on  an  old-fashioned 
distaff,  weave  it  into  cloth,  and  ornament  it  with  most 
beautiful  embroidery. 

Albania 

Little  Albania,  less  than  one  and  one-half  times  the  size 
of  Massachusetts,  lies  along  the  southeastern  shore  of  the 
Adriatic  Sea.  Like  other  countries  of  the  Balkan  Penin- 
sula, it  is  carved  out  of  the  former  Turkish  Empire. 

It  is  a  rugged,  mountainous  country,  inhabited  by  a 
brave,  warlike  people  who  live  and  work  in  a  most  primi- 
tive way.  The  fact  that  for  six  hundred  years  Albania 
was  a  Turkish  province  is  sufficient  to  explain  its  lack  of 
development.  The  ordinary  village  in  central  and  northern 
Albania  is  a  collection  of  huts  and  houses  of  loose  rock 
and  mud.  They  are  separated  by  narrow,  winding,  dirty 
passages  which  serve  as  streets.  There  are  no  roads  in 
the  country  regions,  and  all  goods  are  carried  on  the  back 
of  ponies.  Southern  Albania  is  more  advanced,  as  it  has 
had  some  trade  with  Greece  and,  during  several  years  of  the 
World  War,  was  under  Italian  military  occupation.  They 
built  roads  and  telegraph  lines,  established  a  postal  system 
and  schools,  and  erected  hospitals. 

Many  Albanian  farmers  have  olive  orchards,  produce 
good  crops  of  tobacco,  and  raise  large  flocks  of  sheep.  The 
soil  is  fertile,  and  there  are  rich  mineral  resources. 


416  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 

TOPICS  FOR   STUDY 


1.  Westward  migi-ation  of  the  Turks. 

2.  The  Crusades. 

3.  Former  and  present  area  of  Turkey. 

4.  The  great  city  of  Constantinople. 

5.  Effect  of  the  World  War  on  Turkey. 

6.  Surface  and  coast  line  of  Greece. 

7.  Ancient  Greece. 

8.  Occupations  in  Greece. 

9.  The  Corinthian  Canal. 

10.  Corinth  and  currants. 

11.  The  city  of  Athens. 

12.  Thermopylae  and  Marathon. 

13.  The  Olympic  games. 

14.  Farms  and  farming  in  Bulgaria. 

15.  Attar  of  roses. 

16.  Sofia,  the  capital  of  Bulgaria. 

17.  The  plain  of  the  Danube  in  Rumania. 

18.  The  oil  product  of  Rumania. 

19.  The  city  of  Bucharest. 

20.  The  country  of  Albania. 


II 

1.  Sketch  a  map  to  show  the  former  great  size  of  the  Turkish 
Empire.    Show  on  it  its  present  area. 

2.  Illustrate  on  a  globe  the  voyages  of  Columbus  and  Vasco 
da  Gama. 

3.  Find  out  what  you  can  about  the  Crusades,  and  tell  the  class 
about  them. 

4.  What  are  the  cities  in  the  United  States  which  are  larger 
than  Constantinople? 

5.  In  what  part  of  Greece  did  the  Spartans  live?   Tell  something 
about  the  life  of  a  Spartan  boy. 

6.  What  Greek  myth  or  hero  do  you  know  of? 

7.  Give  the  boundaries  of  Bulgaria. 


COUNTRIES  OF  THE  BALKAN  PENINSULA       417 

8.  Write  a  list  of  the  capitals  of  the  countries  described  in  this 
chapter.  Opposite  each  one  write  the  name  of  a  city  in  the  United 
States  of  about  the  same  size. 

9.  Name  the  important  petroleum-producing  countries  of  the 
world. 

10.  Name  the  countries  through  which  one  would  pass  in  a  trip 
down  the  Danube  from  its  source  to  its  mouth. 

11.  Of  what  country  do  Serbia  and  Montenegro  now  form  a  part? 
Bound  this  country.    AVhat  is  its  capital  ? 

12.  Before  the  World  War  the  countries  of  the  Balkan  Peninsula 
had  wars  among  themselves.  Can  you  find  out  some  of  the  results 
of  these  wars? 

Ill 

Be  able  to  spell  and  pronounce  the  following  names.  Locate  each 
place  and  tell  what  was  said  about  it  in  this  and  in  any  previous 
chapter.    Add  other  facts  if  possible. 


Africa 

Montenegro 

Odessa 

Albania 

Palestine 

Paris 

Arabia 

Persia 

Patras 

Argentina 

Riviera 

Sofia 

Armenia 

Rumania 

Balkan  Peninsula 

Russia 

Adi-iatic  Sea 

Bulgaria 

Serbia 

yEgean  Sea 

Central  Asia 

Spain 

Black  Sea 

China 

Thermopylae 

Corinthian  Canal 

France 

Danube  River 

Germany 

Athens 

Euphrates  River 

Greece 

Bucharest 

Gulf  of  Corinth 

Hejaz 

Budapest 

Gulf  of  ^gina 

Holy  Land 

Constantinople 

Mediterranean  Sea 

Hungary 

Constanza 

Nile  River 

India 

Corinth 

Sea  of  Marmora 

Japan 

Grasse 

Strait  of  Bosporus 

Jugoslavia 

Jerusalem 

Tigris  River 

Marathon 

Minneaj)olis 

Transylvaniau  Alps 

418  INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 

GENERAL  REVIEW 

1.  Write  lists  of  the  industries,  cities,  and  rivers  of  each  country 
of  Europe.  Sketch  a  map  of  each  country  and  locate  all  the  places 
mentioned. 

2.  What  country  do  you  consider  the  most  important  ?  Give  the 
reasons  for  your  answer. 

3.  Which  country  do  you  think  the  most  interesting  ?  Give  the 
reasons  for  your  opinion. 

4.  What  city  would  you  like  best  to  visit  ?   Why  ? 

6.  Compare  the  canal  system  of  Europe  with  that  of  the  United 
States.  Make  a  list  of  the  rivers  connected  by  canals.  Trace  these 
waterways  on  a  map. 

6.  Name  the  chief  commercial  city  and  the  chief  manufacturing 
city  or  cities  of  each  country.  Locate  them  on  an  outline  map. 
AVhat  is  the  most  northerly  city  of  which  you  have  read?  the  most 
southerly  ?  the  most  easterly  ?  the  most  westerly  ?  For  what  is  each 
imjjortant  ? 

7.  Name  the  five  largest  cities  of  Europe  and  give  some  reasons 
for  their  growth  and  imj^ortance. 

8.  Explain  why  the  climate  of  western  Europe  is  warmer  than 
that  of  corresjionding  latitudes  in  America. 

9.  How  has  the  surface  of  Europe  affected  the  people  ?  the 
industries  ? 

10.  Name  the  five  largest  rivers  of  Europe.  Compare  them  in 
length,  usefulness,  products  carried,  and  cities,  with  the  largest 
rivers  of  North  America.  Which  river  do  you  think  is  the  most 
useful?    Give  the  reasons  for  your  choice. 

11.  Make  a  list  of  the  kinds  of  animals  spoken  of  in  these  chapters 
and  write  beside  each  one  the  name  of  the  country  with  which  it  is 
connected.    Make  a  similar  list  of  grains ;  of  fruits ;  of  manufactures. 

12.  Name  the  monarchies  of  Europe  ;  the  republics. 

13.  Send  vessels  from  ten  different  ports  in  Europe  to  ten  different 
cities  in  other  continents.  Name  and  locate  the  shipping  and  receiv- 
ing ports,  tell  the  routes  followed,  and  describe  the  cargoes  carried 
each  way. 

14.  Compare  the  working  classes  of  Europe  with  those  of  the 
L'nited  States. 

15.  Discuss  the  advantages  or  disadvantages  of  the  position  of 
the  United  States  as  contrasted  with  that  of  European  countries. 


GENERAL  REVIEW  419 

16.  "With  what  country  or  countries  do  you  associate  the  follow- 
ing:  fiords,  toys,  corn,  mists,  sunflower  farms,  the  midnight  su)i, 
canaries,  bulbs,  Gota  Canal,  sweet  chocolate,  coral,  amber,  glaciers, 
great  plains,  sawmills,  technical  schools,  skiing,  chemicals,  river 
mills,  sardines,  Kiel  Canal,  vineyards,  currants,  cork,  olive  oil,  dense 
population,  forests,  great  inventions,  beautiful  lakes,  shipbuilding, 
early  explorers,  the  Iron  Gate,  sugar  beets,  black-and-white  cows, 
gypsies,  cream  of  tartar,  robber  knights.  Black  Forest  ]Mountains, 
tunnels,  ruins,  peat,  mules  and  bullocks,  hemp,  potatoes,  irrigation, 
flax  retting,  iron,  potassium  salts,  colonies,  butter,  lace  and  em- 
broidery, "  Land  of  the  Three  Thousand  Lakes,"  wood  carving,  salt 
mines,  "  Mistress  of  the  Seas,"  lumber,  mineral  springs,  "  Queen 
of  Fibers,"  rose  bushes,  raisins,  soya  beans,  sagas,  sturgeon,  cod-liver 
oil,  cleanliness,  eider  ducks,  patience  and  perseverance,  sceteis,  dikes, 
Jiadh-od,  caviare,  northern  lights,  Ludwig  Canal. 

17.  With  what  city  or  cities  do  you  associate  the  following  :  soda 
water,  ]\ite,  fish,  dressing  of  furs  and  skins,  islands,  fashion  center, 
financial  center,  canals,  lace,  whale  oil,  attar  of  roses,  cod  roe,  woolen 
goods,  amber,  cutlery,  salt,  the  greatest  docks,  soap,  grapes,  butter, 
Vesuvius,  Billingsgate,  soldiers,  tlie  greatest  tea  market,  emigrants, 
fine  parks,  the  Blarney  Stone,  ribbons,  the  "Chicago  of  Ireland,"  silk 
manufacturing,  cathedrals,  the  Forum,  the  Golden  Horn,  canneries, 
peanuts,  coral  beads,  olive  oil,  tortoise  shell,  the  Moors,  diamond 
cutting,  cheese,  fairs,  linen,  wine,  ii-on  and  steel  manufactures, 
cotton  manufactures,  granite,  bazaars,  wheat,  shipbuilding,  watches, 
a  wonderful  clock,  matches,  the  Kremlin,  macaroni,  ovarinas,  j)ate 
de  foie  gras,  Columbus. 


PRONOUNCING  VOCABULARY  AND  INDEX 

Key.  ale,  senate,  at,  ciire,  tisk,  iirm,  final,  all  ;  eve,  event,  end,  her,  recent; 
ice,  ill,  admiral;  old,  obey,  on,  for,  anchor;  use,  unite,  up,  fur,  circus,  menii; 
food,  foot;  eh  as  in  chop;  g  as  in  go;  ug  as  in  sing;  n  as  in  ink;  th  as  in 
thin ;  th  as  in  the ;  fi  as  ny  in  canyon ;  oi  as  in  oil ;  ow  as  in  cow ;  ou  as  in 
noun;  N  {the  French  njisal),  nearly  like  ng  in  sing;  k  as  in  German  ich,  ach. 


Aberdeen   (aberden'),   shipyards, 

21  ;  granite,  297  ;  fishing  indus- 
try, 297,  298 
^gean  (eje'an)  Sea,  trade  routes, 

209 
^gina(e  ji'na),  Gulf,  397 
Africa  (af  ri  ka),  drainage,  9  ;   oil 

seeds  and  nuts,  322  ;  coral,  354  ; 

tortoise  shell,  356 
Aire  (ar)  River,  90 
Albania    (ai  ba'nl  a),    description, 

415 
Alexandria  (al'eg  zan'dri  a),  cotton, 

81 
Algeria  (al  je'ria),  cork,  115,  119; 

olives   and   olive   oil,   307,    320; 

wine  industry,  337  ;  trade  with 

France,  375 
Alkmaar  (alk  mar'),  cheese  market, 

235-237 
Allied  Nations,  capture  of  German 

navy,  34 
Almeria  (al  ma  re'a),  grapes,  330 
Alps  Mountains,  separate  Switzer- 
land from  Italy,  6;  pastures,  246 ; 

climbing,  247 
Alsace-Lorraine      (al  sas'   16  ran'), 

iron,  177 ;  in  World  War,  339-342 
Amber  industry,  261-263 
Amsterdam   (S,m'ster  dam),  cheese 

trade,  237-238 ;  description,  239- 

243 
Andalusia    (an  da  loo'shi  a),    olive 

industry,  310 

421 


Antwerp  (ant'werp),  capture  by 
Germans,  66  ;  description,  73 

Arabia  (ara'bia),  revolt  from 
Turkish  control,  394 

Arabs,  in  Hejaz,  394  ;  in  Mesopo- 
tamia, 394 

Archangel  (ark  an'jel),  description, 
131  ;  canal  connections,  139  ; 
fishing,  148 

Arctic  (ark'tik)  Ocean,  fishing,  279 

Argentina  (ar  jen  te'na),  fiax  indus- 
try, 53;  trade  with  France,  381, 
wheat,  412 

Arno  (ar'no)  River,  362 

Asia  (a'sha),  furs,  146 ;  original 
home  of  the  grape,  326  ;  Turkish 
migration,  389  ;  World  War,  394 

Astrakhan  (as  tra  kSn'),  descrip- 
tion, 141;  fish,"  148 

Athens  (ath'enz),  description,  398  ; 
stadium,  400 

Atlantic  Ocean,  shipbuilding,  35 

Attar  (afar)  of  roses,  404-406 

Australia  (astra'lTa),  Great  Bar- 
rier Reef,  354;  tortoise  shell, 
356  ;  trade  with  France,  381 

Austria  (as'tri  a),  people,  200 ;  posi- 
tion, 201;  surface,  211;  resources, 
211  ;  population,  212 

Austria-Hungary  (hiin'ga  ri),  peo- 
ples, 200  ;  breaking  up  of  old 
empire,  201  ;  Bohemia,  201-204 ; 
Jugoslavia,  206 ;  partition  of 
Poland,  256  ;  Trieste,  359 


422 


IXDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  —  EUROPE 


Babylonians  (bab  i  lo'ni  anz),  civili- 
zation, 2 

Bahama  (ba  ha'ma)  Islands,  sugar, 
81  "_ 

Baku  (bakoo'),  petroleum,  139 

Balkan  (bal  kan')  Peninsula,  im- 
portance of  position,  209 ;  surface 
and  trade  routes,  209;  railroads, 
209  ;  goatskins,  219  ;  grapes  and 
wine,  328;  under  Turkish  rule, 
391  ;  position  of  Greece,  395 ; 
attar  of  roses,  407 

Baltic  (bal'tik)  Sea,  shipbuilding, 
33 ;  ports,  123  ;  highway  for  Rus- 
sia, 125  ;  connected  with  Black 
Sea,  130 ;  climate,  180  ;  canal 
connections  with  North  Sea,  187  ; 
route  to  ocean,  244 

Barcelona  (bar  se  lo'na),  descrip- 
tion, 317-318 

Basel  (ba'zel),  silks,  249,  385;  a 
frontier  city,  385 ;  size,  385 

Bay  of  Naples,  351-352 

Bazaars  (ba  zarz')  of  Constantino- 
ple, 393-394 

Belfast  (bel'fast),  shipyards,  22 ; 
description,  52,  53 

Belgium  (bgrjium),  canals,  9,  10; 
flax  and  linen,  53,  74 ;  noted 
products,  65  ;  World  War,  65-69, 
70,  71  ;  j)opulation,  68  ;  north  and 
south  Belgium,  68,  <)9  ;  old  cities, 
69,  71 ;  commerce,  73  ;  dog  carts, 
73,  74  ;  dairying,  243  ;  fishing  in- 
dustry, 298 

Belgrade  (bel  grad'),  trade  routes, 
209  ;  size,  210  ;  effects  of  World 
War,  210-211  ;  importance  of 
position,  211,  228 

Bengal  (bengal'),  jute  industry, 
56,  57 

Ben  Lomond  (lo'mund),  scenery,  25 

Bergen  (ber'gen),  climate,  4  ;  fish- 
ing industry,  280-282  ;  descrip- 
tion, 282 

Berlin  (bfirlTn'),  canal  connec- 
tions, 187;  commerce,  188,189; 
description,  196--197 

Birmingham  (ber'ming  am),  de- 
scription, 92-95 


"Black-earth"  region,  150-151, 
412 

Black  Forest,  194  ;  mountains,  212 

Black  Sea,  connected  with  Baltic. 
130;  in  former  Turkish  empire, 
391  ;  wheat  shipping,  412 

Blarney  Castle,  description,  43 

Bohemia  (bo  he'mi  a),  position  and 
size,  201  ;  surface  and  soil,  202  ; 
farming,  202  ;  home  industries, 
202  ;  resources,  203  ;  manufac- 
tures, 203,  204  ;  commerce,  203, 
204  ;  mineral  springfe,  204 

Bokhara  (bb  Ka'ra),  trade  with 
Russia,  139 

Bombay  (bom  ba'),  cotton,  81 

Bordeaux  (bordo'),  olive  oil,  320; 
wine  port,  338 ;  railroad  to  Lyon, 
381 

Bradford  (brad'ferd),  woolen  in- 
dustry, 89,  90 

Brazil,  jute,  59;  colony  of  Portugal, 
105  ;  trade  with  Portugal,  107  ; 
trade  with  Poland,  261 

Brege  (bra'ge)  River,  source  of 
Danube,  212 

Bremen  (bre'men),  commerce,  182  ; 
description,  186-187 

Brieg  (breiv),  terminus  of  Simplon 
Tunnel,  7 

Brigach  (bre'gan)  River,  source  of 
Danube,  212 

Bristol  (bris'tul),  channel,  22  ;  citv, 
78 

British  Commonwealth,  78 

British  Isles,  shipbuilding,  20-22  ; 
industries  in  London,  98  ;  hides 
and  skins,  144  ;  dairying  and 
dairy  imports,  243.  -See  also 
names  of  countries 

Brittany,  description,  299-300, 301 ; 
sardines,  300-305  ;  olive  oil,  320 

Bruges  (broo'jez),  description,  71; 
former  importance,  88 

Brussels  (brus'elz),  description,  70, 
71  2 

Bucharest  (boo  ka  rest'),  descrip- 
tion, 413-414 

Budapest  (boo'dapest),  milling, 
226,  412  ;  description,  226-227 


INDEX 


423 


Bulgaria  (bool  ga'ri  a),  former 
Turkish  province,  391 ;  size,  401 ; 
description,  401;  people  and  oc- 
cupations, 401-402  ;  crops,  402- 
403  ;  manufactures,  403 ;  age, 
403-404  ;  attar  of  roses,  404-406 

Butter,  in  Netherlands,  238-239; 
in  Denmark,  244 ;  in  United 
States,  251 

Cadiz  (ka'diz  or  kii'theth),  bay, 
319 

Calais  (kal'a  or  kale'),  "Notting- 
ham of  France,"  92 

Calcutta  (kal  kut'a),  jute,  57,  59 

California  (kal  i  for'ni  a), shipbuild- 
ing, 34;  olives,  321-322;  grapes 
and  raisins,  332 

Cambridge  (kam'brij),  university 
town,  96 

Canada  (kan'a  da),  furs,  146 

Canals,  number,  9, 10 ;  of  the  Neth- 
erlands, 10,  184,  241 ;  connecting 
rivers,  11 ;  of  Belgium,  73;  Man- 
chester Ship  Canal,  83;  Leeds 
and  Liverpool  Canal,  90 ;  Kiel 
Canal,  123;  of  Russia,  130,  139; 
of  Germany,  187,  188,  189,  190; 
Ludwig  Canal,  215;  of  France, 
338,  381 ;  Corinthian  Canal,  397 

Canary-bird  industry,  195-190 

Canton  (kan  ton'),  China,  147 

Cape  Colony,  wool,  81 

Carpathian  (kiir  pa'thi  an)  Moun- 
tains, 220 

Carrara  (kar  ra'rji)  marble,  335 

Caspian  (kas'pT  an)  Sea,  canal  con- 
nections, 130;  fishing  industry, 
140 

Caucasus  (ka'ka  siis)  Mountains, 
129 

Central  Asia,  migrations  of  Turks, 
389 ;  ancient  commerce,  389 

Central  Europe,  hemp,  61,  62 ; 
hides  and  skins,  144 ;  peoples 
and  countries,  200-201;  World 
War,  206,  209,  210,  212  ;  Danube 
River  and  valley,  212-229 ;  pota- 
toes, 214;  sugar,  214;  grapes 
and  wine,  328 ;  Trieste,  359 


Champagne  (shSmpan'),  province, 
338;  destruction  by  war,  338, 
339;  wine,  338 

Charcoal  in  Russia  and  Sweden 
136-137 

Chatham  (chSt'am)  shipyards,  22 

Cheese,  in  the  "Netherlands,  235- 
238;  making,  239;  Roquefort, 
251 ;  in  the  United  States,  251 

Chesapeake  (ches'a  pek)  Bay,  ship- 
building, 35 

Chile  (che'la),  nitrates,  20,  250 

China,  overland  journeys,  2 ;  navy, 
33  ;  silk,  365,  371-372  ;  trade 
with  France,  375,  376;  ancient 
commerce,  389 

Chocolate-making  in  Switzerland, 
249 

Christiania  (kris  ti  a'n^  a),  descrip- 
tion, 292-294 

Christopher  Columbus,  object  of 
voyage,  390 

Climate  of  Europe,  2-5 

Clyde  (klid)  River,  shipyards,  22. 
23,  28;  course,  23,  24;  mineral 
deposits  in  valley,  24 ;  route  to 
ocean,  25 ;  Glasgow,  26  ;  opposite 
Forth  River,  25,  26,  78  ;  improve- 
ments, 26  ;  lumber  from  Russia, 
131 

Coal,  in  Scotland,  24;  in  Belgium, 
69 ;  in  England,  87 ;  in  Russia, 
152;  in  Germany,  176,  177;  in 
Saar  valley  coal  mines,  177;  in 
Poland,  259 ;  in  France,  383 

Cobh,  40,  41 

Cologne  (kolon').  commerce,  184; 
cathedral,  196 

Colosseum  (kol  o  se'um).  357 

Concarneau  (koN  kar  no')  sardine 
industry,  301-305 

Connecticut  (ko  netl  kut),  river, 
23 ;  state,  385" 

Constantinople  (kon  stan  ti  no'pl), 
trade  routes,  209 ;  importance 
of  position,  391 ;  captured  by 
Turks,  391;  description,  392- 
394 

Constanza  (kon  stan'za),  seaport, 
412 


424 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 


Copenhagen  (ko  pen  ha'gen),  de- 
scription, 244-245 

Copper  needed  in  World  War,  210 

Coral  industry,  335,  353-356 

Cordage,  manufactured  in  Belfast, 
53 ;  age  and  uses,  61 ;  materials, 
61 ;  quantity  manufactured,  63 

Cordoba  (kor'do  va)  in  Andalusia, 
310 

Corinth  (kor'inth),  gulf,  397;  city, 
397-398 

Corinthian  Canal,  397 

Cork,  Cove  of,  40  ;  Queenstown,  41, 
42  ;  city,  42,  45 

Cork  industry,  112-120 

Cotton,  in  England,  84-86 ;  in 
Russia,  124,  143 ;  oil  from  seeds, 
304,  322,  323,  324 

Courtrai  (koor  tre'),  flax  industry, 
74 

Cowes  (kouz),  shipyards,  22 

Cream  of  tartar,  344 

Crusades,  route  through  Danube 
valley,  213  ;  description,  390 

Currants  from  Greece,  398 

Czechoslovakia  (chek'o  slo  vak'i  a), 
commerce  with  Germany,  187, 
189;  people,  201 ;  size,  201 ;  drain- 
age, 201 ;  commerce,  201 ;  Bohe- 
mia, 201-204 ;  occupations  and 
resources,  202,  203  ;  home  indus- 
tries, 202-203 ;  mineral  springs, 
204 

Dairying,  in  Ireland,  45;  in  Fin- 
land, 159;  in  Germany,  178;  in 
the  Netherlands,  235-238,  243;  in 
British  Isles,  243 ;  in  Siberia, 
243 ;  in  Sweden,  243  ;  in  Belgium, 
243 ;  in  Switzerland,  243 ;  in  Ire- 
land, 243  ;  in  Denmark,  243,  244 ; 
in  Norway,  243,  288,  290,  292; 
in  the  United  States,  250-251 

Dannemora  (danemo'ra),  iron, 
167,  168 

Danuije  (dan'iib)  River,  source,  11 ; 
canal  connections,  11,  215;  river 
mills,  209.  224,  412;  length, 
212  ;  source,  212  ;  scenery,  212  ; 
Ulm,  213 ;  occupations  in  valley, 


214-215, 221, 222, 223 ;  ferry,  215 ; 
Kelheim,  215;  traffic,  215,  216, 
220,  225,  227,  412 ;  Passau,  215  ; 
lumbering,  21 7  ;  villages,  217, 221- 
222;  cliffs  and  castles,  217-218; 
Vienna,  218;  Plain  of  Hungary, 
220  ;  old  lake  basin,  221  ;  scenes 
on  banks,  224;  Budapest,  226- 
227  ;  gypsies,  227-228 ;  branches, 
228 ;  people  of  valley,  228 ;  Bel- 
grade, 228 ;  the  Iron  Gate,  229 ; 
improvements,  229;  basin  in 
former  Turkish  empire,  391 
Danzig  (diin'tsiK),  description,  260- 

261 ;  amber  market,  262 
Dartmouth,  shipyards,  22 
Delaware    (dera  war)    Bay,    ship- 
building, 35 
Delaware  River,  shipbuilding,  35 
Denmark,  trade  with  Portugal,  108 ; 
Low    Country,    231 ;     dairying, 
243,  244  ;  fish,  298 
Derby  silk  manufactures,  92 
Devonport  (dev'un  port)  shipyards, 

22 
Diamond  cutting,  242 
Dnieper  (ne'per)  River,  130 
Dog  carts,  73,  74 
Don   River,    in   England,   91 ;    in 

Russia,  130,  140 
Donetz    (donyets')    River   valley, 

145,  152 
Douro  (do'roo)  River,  332-333,  334 
Drave  (dra've)  River,  228 
Dublin  (diib'lin),  description,  48,  49 
Duga   (doo  ga'),   description,  128  ; 

making,  137 
Duluth  (doo  looth'),  wheat,  81 
Duna  (du'na)  River,  124,  130 
Dundee  (dun  de'),  jute,  57,  58 
Diisseldorf  (diis'el  dorf),  commerce, 

184 
Dwina  (dwe'na)  River,  130,  131 

East  Indies,  trade,  234-235 ;  oil 
seeds  and  nuts,  322  ;  tortoise 
shell,  356 

Edinburgh  (ed'in  biir  6),  route  from 
Glasgow,  26  ;  advantage  of  situa- 
tion, 25,  78 


INDEX 


425 


Egypt    (e'jTpt),     cottonseed,    322; 

trade  with  France,  376 
Eider  (i'der)  ducks,  down,  283-28-4 
Elbe   (el'be)   lliver,  canal  connec- 
tions, 181,  187,  189;    port,  182; 
description,  187;  commerce,  188- 
189  ;  drains  Bohemia,  213 
Elberfeld   (el  ber  felt'),  industries, 

183 
England,  climate,  3,  77;  canals,  9, 
10 ;  World  War,  34  ;  German 
plans  for  invasion,  65  ;  commer- 
cial center,  76,  77  ;  size,  76 ; 
population,  76  ;  dependence  on 
other  nations,  77;  position  and 
coastline,  78 ;  seaports,  78 ;  for- 
eign possessions,  78  ;  mineral  de- 
posits, 79  ;  industrial  inventions, 
79,  80;  cotton,  84-87;  wool,  87- 
90;  "Black  Country,"  91-94; 
trade  with  Portugal,  107-108, 
116 ;  trade  with  Poland,  261 ;  salt, 
271  ;  trade  with  Norway,  276, 
281-,  286;  fish,  296;  olives  and 
olive  oil,  308  ;  oil  seeds  and  nuts, 
322  ;  wine,  332,  335 
English  Channel,  shipyards,  22 
Essen  (es'en),  manufactures,  183 
Euphrates  (u  f  ra'tez)  River,  391 
Europe,  position,  1,  2  ;  size,  coun- 
tries, 1  ;  people  and  civilization, 
2,  11 ;  climate,  2-5  ;  surface,  4, 
10,  11 ;  separation  of  peoples,  5, 
6  ;  coastline,  8,  9  ;  drainage,  9  ; 
canals,  9,  10;  governments,  11, 
12;  peasant  life,  13,  14;  ship- 
yards, 20-22  ;  vegetable  oils,  322  ; 
soya  beans,  324  ;  Turkish  migra- 
tion, 389  ;  search  for  new  routes 
to  the  East,  390 

Fairs  in  Russia,  144-148 

Falmouth  (fal'muth).  shipyards, 
22 

Finland  (fin'land),  situation,  157  ; 
surface,  157 ;  history,  158  ;  cli- 
mate, 158-159  ;  occupations,  159  ; 
resources,  159-160;  manufac- 
turing, 160 ;  lumber  exports, 
171 


Fish  at  Russian  fair,  148 

Fishing,  in  Russia,  140.  296,  298- 
299  ;  in  Norway,  276-282,  299  ; 
in  Arctic  Ocean,  279;  in  Pacific 
Ocean,  279  ;  in  Japan,  296 ; 
in  United  States,  296  ;  in 
England,  296-297;  in  Scotland, 
297-298  ;  in  Germany,  298  ; 
in  Sweden,   298  ;    in   Denmark, 

298  ;  in  Belgium,  298  :  in  Maine, 

299  ;  in  France,  299-304 
Fiume  (fyoo'ma),  seaport,  359 
Flanders   (fian'dgrz),    former    im- 
portance, 88 

Flax  industry,  50-52,  73,  74 
Florence,  silk  industry,  302 
Forests,  in  Portugal,  112-11-3;  in 
Russia,  130, 131,^132  ;  in  Sweden, 
169-170;   in  Germany.   192;    in 
Central   Europe,  208,  209,  215, 
217,  221,  228;  in  Norway,  274, 
288 
Forth  River,  21,  25,  78 
Forum  (fo'rum),  Roman.  357 
France,  canals,  9,  10  ;   hemp,  61  ; 
German  plans  for  invasion,  65  ; 
density  of  population,  76  ;  fruit 
and  vegetables,  81 ;   trade  with 
Portugal,  108;   cork.  115;  hides 
and  skins,  144  ;  goods  at  Russian 
fair,  148  ;  Alsace  and  Lorraine, 
177,  339-342  ;    Saar  valley  coal 
mines,  177;  salt,  271;  sardines, 
278,   299-305;   trade  with  Nor- 
way, 281 ;  olives,  307,  .320.  321  ; 
grapes  and  wine,  327,  328,  329, 
337-339,  343,  345 ;  World  War, 
338,  339,  342-343  ;  route  to  Ger- 
many, 340;  people,  345;  silk,  365, 
372,   375,   376-383;   coal   fields, 
383  ;  steel,  383  ;  rope.  383  ;  per- 
fumes, 408-411 
Francis  Joseph,  former   ruler    of 

Austria-Hungary.  201 
Franco-Prussian  (f  ran'ko  prush'an) 

War,  339,  340 
Frankfort    (frank'furt).    chemical 

industry,  183 
Furs,  from  Russia,  127  ;  on  Volga 
River,  139 


426 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  —  EUROPE 


Galveston  (gal'ves  tun),  cotton,  81, 
85 

Garonne  (ga  ron')  River,  338 

Geneva  (j^  ne'va),  watchmaking, 
249 

Genoa  (jen'6  a),  ancient  commerce, 
71  ;  coral,  35(3 ;  industries,  385  ; 
size,  385 

Germany,  shipbuilding,  33  ;  hemp, 
61,  62  ;  invasion  of  Belgium,  61- 
69,  71  ;  density  of  population, 
76 ;  trade  with  Portugal,  108, 
116  ;  hides  and  skins,  145  ;  goods 
at  Russian  fair,  148  ;  size,  174  ; 
the  World  War,  174-177,  340; 
manufactures,  176, 178,  183  ;  iron 
and  coal,  176,  177;    agriculture, 

177,  178,  184;  potatoes,  177; 
sugar  beets  and  beet  sugar,  177, 

178,  179,  180  ;  hops,  178  ;  dairy- 
ing, 178 ;  commerce,  180,  183, 
184,  185,  187,  188,  189;  situa- 
tion, 180;  Kiel  Canal,  180,  188; 
drainage,  181 ;  seaports,  181, 
182;  canals,  181,  187,  196; 
Rhine  River  industries,  182-184  ; 
corridor  of  the  Rhine  valley. 
185-186  ;  Weser  River,  186-187  ; 
emigrants,  187  ;  Elbe  River,  187, 
188 ;  Oder  River,  189  ;  house 
industries,  190  ;  toys,  190-194  ; 
forests,  192  ;  Black  Forest,  194  ; 
wood  carving,  194-195  ;  canary 
hirds,  195-196  ;  expansion,  209  ; 
minerals  in  World  War,  210; 
fixation  of  nitrogen,  250 ;  parti- 
tion of  Poland.  256  ;  amber,  261- 
263;  salt,  270,  271;  potassium 
salts,  271  ;  trade  with  Norway, 
281,  286  ;  fishing  industry,  298  ; 
grapes  and  wine,  178,  182,  327, 
328  ;  Alsace  and  Lorraine,  339  ; 
route  to  France,  340 

Ghent     (gent),     description,     69; 

former  importance,  88 
Gibraltar  (jT  bral'ter).  fortress,  332 
Gironde  (zhe  rdxd')  River,  338 
Glasgow  (glas'go),  position,  24,  26, 
78  ;  route  to  Edinburgh,  25  ;  de- 
scription, 27,  28 


Glassware  from  Bohemia,  204 

Gloves,  in  Bohemia,  204 ;  in  Vienna, 
219 

Gota  (yfi'ta)  Canal,  route  from 
Sweden,   244 

Governments,  11,  12 

Granada  (gra  na'da),  in  Andalusia, 
310 

Grapes,  from  Malaga,  120,  329,  330; 
where  raised,  326,  328  ;  fetes  of 
the  vine,  327,  328 ;  varieties,  328 ; 
Rhine  vineyards,  328  ;  in  Spain, 
329  ;  in  Portugal,  329,  332- 
333,  335  ;  raisin-making,  331- 
332  ;  wine-making,  332-333,  336- 
337,  338,  343  ;  in  Italy,  335-337  ; 
in  France,  337-338 ,  343  ;  by- 
products, 343-344 

Grasse(gras), perfume  industry.  409 

Great  Barrier  Reef  of  Australia, 
354 

Great  Bell  of  Moscow,  142 

Great  Britain,  position,  5 ;  jute, 
58,  59  ;  cotton,  84-86  ;  wool,  87- 
90  ;  fish,  296,  298 

Great  Island,  in  hai'bor  of  Cork,  40 

Great  Lakes,  shipbuilding,  35 

Great  Powers,  treaty  of  neutrality, 
66 

Greece,  navy,  ;34  ;  olives  and  olive 
oil,  307,  308 ;  former  province 
of  Turkey,  391 ;  position,  coast- 
line, surface,  395  ;  ancient  cul- 
ture, 395  ;  beauty,  395  ;  people, 
395  ;  industries,  396-397  ;  Corin- 
thian Canal,  397  ;  currants,  398  ; 
famous  men,  398  ;  history,  399  ; 
Olympic  games,  399-401 

Grimsby  (grimz'bl),  fishing  indus- 
try, 296,'"297 

Guadalquivir  (go  dal  kwiv'er  or 
gwa  thai  ke  ver')  River,  310,  318 

Gulf  of  Mexico,  shipbuilding,  35 

Gulf  Stream,  effect  on  climate,  3, 
77,  159 

Gypsies  in  Hungary,  227-228 

Hamburg  (ham'burg),  seaport.  73; 
commerce,  182, 187-188, 189,204; 
advantage  of  position,  188 


INDEX 


427 


Hammerfest  (ham'gr  fgst),  fishing 
industry,  280  ;  description,  284- 
286 

Harz  (liiirts)  Mountains,  canary- 
birds,   195 

Havel  (ha'vel)  River,  196 

Heidelberg  (hi'del  burg)  Castle,  196 

Hejaz  (hej  az'),  revolt  from  Turk- 
ish control,  394 

Helsingf ors  (hel  sing  f  ors'),  descrip- 
tion, 161-162 

Hemp  industry,  61-64 

Hides  and  skins,  in  Russia,  143  ; 
at  Russian  fairs,  146  ;  in  Central 
Europe,  219  ;  in  Balkan  Penin- 
sula, 219 

Hog  Island,  shipbuilding,  35 

Holland.    See  Netherlands 

Holy  Land,  capture  by  Turks,  390  ; 
capture  by  English,  394 

Home  industries,  in  Germany,  190  ; 
in  Central  Europe,  202,  203 

Hongkong  (hong'kong'),  on  route 
of  tramp  steamer,  19 

Hood,  Thomas,  poem,  185 

Hops  in  Germany,  178 

Hull,  fishing  industry,  296 

Humber  (hum'ber)  River,  ship- 
building, 21 

Hungary  (hun'ga  ri),  people,  200  ; 
position,  201 ;  sheepskins,  219  ; 
drainage,  220  ;  surface,  220,  221  ; 
crops,  221;  animals,  221;  villages, 
221,  222  ;  occupations,  221,  222, 
224 ;  river  scenes,  224 ;  river 
mills,  224;  gypsies,  227;  people, 
228  ;  grain,  402 

India  (in'di  a),  overland  journeys, 
2,  389  ;  flax  industry,  53  ;  jute 
industry,  56,  57,  59  ;  gems,  148 ; 
attar  of  roses,  407 

Indigo,  dye  industry,  178,  179 

Inventions,  79,  80 

Iraq  (e  rak'),  394 

Ireland,  shipyards,  22  ;  emigration, 
41,  44,  45,  46  ;  Emerald  Isle,  42  ; 
climate,  42  ;  jaunting  car,  43  ; 
Blarney  Castle.  43  ;  peat,  43,  46- 
48;  scenery,  43,  44,  45,  46,  49, 


50 ;  homes,  44  ;  farms,  44,  45, 
49  ;  export,  45 ;  dairy  industry, 
45,  243  ;  potatoes.  46 ;  flax  and 
linen,  50,  51,  52,  53 

Irish  Free  State,  40 

Irish  Sea,  shipyards,  22 

Iron,  in  Scotland,  24 ;  in  England, 
91,  92  ;  in  Russia,  152  ;  in  Swe- 
den, 167-168  ;  in  Germany,  176, 
177;  in  Poland,  259;  in  France, 
376,  381,  383 

Iron  Gate  in  the  Danube  River,  22$> 

Irwell  (ar'wgl)  River,  83 

Iselle  (e  zel'),  terminus  of  Simplon 
Tunnel,  7 

Italy,  position.  6  ;  hemp,  61,  62  ; 
olives  and  olive  oil,  81,  307,  308, 
320  ;  silk,  81,  335,  362,  364,  384, 
385  ;  trade  with  Portugal,  108  ; 
cork,  115  ;  grapes  and  wine,  326- 
327,  328,  335-337;  sights  of  in- 
terest, 335  ;  macaroni,  347-350, 
352,  353;  traffic,  350;  people, 
350-351 ;  commerce,  352  ;  coral, 
353-356;  tortoise  shell,  353, 
356  ;  World  War,  358-359;  trade 
with  France,  376,  381 ;  railroad 
to  Lyon,  381 ;  occupation  of 
Albania,  415 

Ivan  (e'van)  the  Terrible,  142 

Jacquard  (ja  kard')  loom,  379-381 
Japan  (japan'),  on  route  of  tramp 
steamer,    20 ;    navy,    34 ;    trade 
with   Portugal,  116;  fishing  in- 
dustry, 296  ;    soya   beans,   324  ; 
coral,   354 ;    silk   industry,  365, 
372 ;    trade  with   France,   376  ; 
ancient  commerce,  389 
Jerez  (ha  rath'),  sherry  wine,  329 
Jerusalem   (je  roo'sa  lem),  capture 
by  Turks.  390  ;  capture  by  Eng- 
lish, 394  ■ 
Jonkoping    (yun'che  ping),    match 

industry,  171 
Jugoslavia  (yoo'gosla'vTa),  forma- 
tion, 201  ;  position  and  size, 
206 ;  countries  included.  206  ; 
formerly  part  of  Turkish  empire, 
206;   development,  206;  World 


428 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  —  EUROPE 


War,    206-207,    209,    210;     re- 
sources, 207-208,  210;  life  and 
occupations,      208-209 ;      trade 
routes,   209 ;   grain,   402 
Jute  industry,  50-60 

Kamchatka  (liam  chat'ka),  f  urs,  146 
Kattegat  (kat'egat),  route  to  Kus- 

sia,"l23 
Kellieim  (kgrhini),  Ludwig  Canal, 

215 
Kenilworth  (ken'il  wfirtb)  Castle,  96 
Kiel  (kel),  shipyards,  34 
Kiel  Canal,  route  to  Russia,  123  ; 

description,  180  ;  on  route  from 

Baltic,  244 
Kiev  (ke'yef),  description,  152-153 
King  Albert  of  Belgium,  66 
Kiolen  (chft'len)  Mountains,  6 
Krakow  (kra'ko),  description,  256- 

257 
Krefeld    (kra'felt),   manufactures, 

183 
Kremlin    (krem'lax),    of   Moscow, 

142,  143  ;  of  Prague,  205 
Kronstadt    (kron'shtat),    canal    to 

Petrograd,  3,  124,  129;  protects 

Petrograd,  124 

Lagan  (la'gan)  River,  Belfast,  52 
Lake  of  Geneva,  scenery,  249 
Lancashire    (lan'ka  sher)    County, 

cotton  industry,  84-86 
Lapland  (lap'land),  position,  162 
climate,  162  ;  occupations,  162 
condition    of    people,    163~164 
Lapps  in  Norway,  284,  286 
Lead,  needed  in  World  War,  210 
League  of  Nations,  176 
Leather  industry  of  Russia,  143 
Lee  River,  Cork,  41 
Leeds,  wool  industry,  89,  90 
Leeds  and  Liverpool  Canal,  90 
Leghorn  (leg'hOrn),  coral,  356 
Leicester  (les'ter),  wool  industry.  92 
Leipzig  (llp'sik  or  lip'tsiK),  indus- 
tries, 196 
Leith   (leth).    at   mouth   of   Forth 

River,  25,  78 
Leonidas,  at  Thermopylse,  399 


Lifege    (le  ezh'),    capture    by    Ger 

mans,  66 
Liffey  (lif'i)  River,  Dublin,  48 
Linen  industry,  53 
Linseed  oil,  uses,  54 
Lisbon  (liz'bun),  description,  105- 

107  "        _ 

Liverpool  (liv'erpool),  on  route  of 

tramp  steamer,  19 ;  description, 

80-83 
Loch  Katrine  (16k  kat'rin), scenery, 

25 
Loch  Lomond  (lo'mund),  scenery,  23 
Lodz  (lodz),  industrial  center,  259 
Lofoten  (16  fo'ten)  Islands,  descrip- 
tion, 276  ;  fishing  industry,  276- 

278 
London  (lun'dun),  situation,  78,  95  ; 

description,  96-102 ;  fish  market, 

296,  298 
Longfellow,  description  of  North 

Cape,  287 
Lorraine     (16  ran')     and     Alsace 

(al  sas'),    iron,    177;    in    World 

War,  339-342 
Louvain  (loo  vSn'),  description  and 

destruction,  71 
Lucca  (look'ka),  olive  oil,  321 
Ludwig  (loot'vik)  Canal,  215 
Lulea  (loo'le  a),  iron,  168 
Lumbering  in  Russia,  131, 135-136; 

in  Finland,  159-160  ;  in  Sweden, 

169-170 ;  in  Central  Europe,  217 ; 

in  Norway,  288 
Lusitania  (lii'si  ta'ni  a),  cost,  32 
Lyon  (li'un  or  le  6n'),  position,  144, 

377  ;  silk  industry,  375,  377-381 ; 

canal  and  railroad  connections,38i 
Lys  (les)  River,  flax  industry,  74 

Macaroni,   food   of   Italians,  347 ; 

manufacture,  347-350,  352,  353  ; 

exports,   352  ;    industry   in   the 

United  States,  353 
Madeira    (ma  de'ra)  Islands,  wine 

industry,  335 
Magyars    (mSd'yorz),    people     of 

Hungary,  200,  201 
Main  (man)  River,  Ludwig  Canal, 

215 


INDEX 


429 


Maine,  potatoes,  40 ;  sardine  in- 
dustry, 299 

Mainz  (mints),  commerce,  184 

Malaga  {mii'laga),  in  Andalusia, 
310 ;  harbor,  319  ;  grapes  and 
raisins,  120,  329,  330,  331,  332 

Malar  (ma'lar)  Lake,  167 

Manchester  (nian'ches  ter),  impor- 
tance, 83  ;  Ship  Canal,  83  ;  de- 
scription, 84-87 

Manchuria  (man  choo'ri  a),  soya 
beans,  324 

Manila  (ma  nil'a)  hemp,  65 

Mannheim  (niau'him),  chemical  in- 
dustry, 184  ;  commerce,  184 

Marathon  (mar'a  thon),  battle 
against  Persians,  399 ;  races, 
399,  401 

Marseille  (marsa'y'),  on  route  of 
tramp  steamer,  20  ;  olive  oil,  320; 
oil  seeds  and  nuts,  322  ;  descrip- 
tion, 375-376  ;  railroad  to  Lyon, 
381 

Match  industry  in  Sweden,  170, 
171-172 

Mauretania  (mo  re  ta'ni  a),  cost,  32 

Mediterranean  (med  i  ter  a'ne  an) 
Sea,  ancient  civilization  around, 
2  ;  drainage  into,  11  ;  canal  con- 
nections, 73,  338  ;  olive  orchards, 
307  ;  coral,  353,  354 ;  ancient 
commerce,  389 

Mersey  (mfir'zi)  River,  shipyards, 
22  ;  Manchester  Ship  Canal,  83 

Metz  (mets),  importance,  340 

Meuse  (muz)  River,  canal  connec- 
tions, 73  ;  work,  232 

Mexico  (mek'siko),  sisal  hemp, 
64 

Milan  (mi  Ian'),  cathedral,  384 ;  silk 
industry,  384  ;  size,  385 

Mineral  springs  of  Bohemia,  204 

Minneapolis  (min  e  ap'6  lis),  mill- 
ing industry,  412 

Mississippi  (mis  T  sip'T)  River,  145 

Missouri  (ml  soT/rT)  River,  145 

Mohammed  (mo  ham'ed),  Turkish 
followers,  389 

Moldau  (mol'dou)  River,  commerce, 
187 


Montenegro  (m6n  ti  na'grO),  union 
with  Southern  Slavs,  201  ;   sur- 
face, 200  ;  former  Turkish  prov- 
ince, 391 
Montreal  (mont  re  al'),  wheat,  81 
Moscow  (mos'ko),  description,  141- 

143 
IMoskva  (mos'kva)  River,  141 
Mountains,  effect  on  climate,  4,  5 ; 
barriers  to  communication,  5,  6 
Mulberry  tree,  364,  365,  371,  370 

Namur  (na'miir),  captured  by  Ger- 
mans, 06 
Kaples  (na'plz),  situation  and  cli- 
mate, 5  ;  macaroni,  347,  350  ;  de- 
scription,   350-352,    304 ;    coral 
and  tortoise  shell,  353,  355,  350 
Napoleon,  passage  over  the  Alps,  7 
Ketlierlands    (netii'er  landz),    the, 
canals,  9, 10 ;  exports,  185  ;  pecu- 
liarities, 231;  one  of  "  Low  Coun- 
tries," 231;   size,   231;  surface, 
231,  234;  cattle,  231,  234.  235; 
work  of  rivers,  232  ;  floods  and 
dikes,  233  ;  reclaiming  land,  233  ; 
Zuider    Zee,     233-234;     cheese 
market,  235-237;  cheese-making, 
238 ;    butter,    238-239 ;    canals, 
241  ;  diamond-cutting,  242  ;  col- 
onies, 242  ;  commerce,  242-243  ; 
dairying,  243 
Neva  (ne'va)  River,  in  winter,  3, 
129;     depth,    124;     canal,    124; 
traffic,  129 
Newcastle,  coal  deposits,  87 
New   England,    shipbuilding,    35 ; 

silk  industry,  380 
New  Jersey,  silk  industry,  385-380 
New  Orleans,  cotton,  81,  85 
New  York  City,  20,  35,  96.  319,  353 
New  York  State,  silk  industry,  385 
Nice  (nes),  olive  oil,  321 
Nile  River  basin,  391 
Nitrogen,  fixation,  250 
Nizlini  Novgorod  (nyizh'nye  nov'- 
go  rot),  village  industries,   137  ; 
fair,  144-148^ 
Ncn-th  America,  drainage,  9 
North  Cape,  description,  287-288 


430 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  — EUROPE 


Northern  Ireland,  40 

North  Holland  Canal,  241 

North  Sea,  connected  with  Scottish 
Lowlands,  26  ;  shipyards,  33 ; 
German  ports,  180  ;  connnerce, 
181  ;  canal  connection  with 
Baltic,  187  ;  fishing,  296 

North  Sea  Canal,  241 

Norway  (nor'wa),  climate,  3.  274, 
285  ;  dairying,  243  ;  fixation  of 
nitrogen,  250,  251  ;  water-power, 
251  ;  position,  surface,  scenery, 
fiords,  274  ;  fishing  industry,  276- 
282,  298,  299  ;  Lofoten  Islands, 
276-277  ;  trip  up  the  coast,  284  ; 
North  Cape,  287-288 ;  occupa- 
tions, 288-290,  292;  the  soeter, 
290,  292  ;  food,  292  ;  sports,  294 

Nottingham  (noting  am),  indus- 
trial center,  92 

Nuremberg  (nu'rem  blirg),  toy  in- 
dustry, 193  ;  description,  194 

Oder  (o'der)  River,  canal  connec- 
tions, 181  ;  port,  182 
Odessa  (6  des'a),  wheat,   151  ;  de- 
scription,   153-154  ;   grain   port, 
412 
Oil,  vegetable,  322  ;  cottonseed,  304, 
322,  323,  324 ;  from  grape  seeds, 
344 
Oka  (6  ka')  River,  144 
Olives,  cargo  of  tramp  steamer,  20 ; 
oil,   304,   307  ;    uses,   307,   308 ; 
queen  olives,  308  ;  description  of 
industry,  309-321  ;    oil  mills  in 
Marseille,     376  ;     industry     in 
Greece,  396 
Olympic  (6  lim'pik),  ship,  22,  32 
Olympic  games  in  Greece,  399-401 
Onega  (6  ne'ga)  River,  130 
Oporto  (6  por'too),  commerce,  107- 
108,   333-334;    wine   port,   332, 
333  ;  description,  334-335 
Ostend  (ost  end'),  during  war,  67 
Oxford  (oks'ferd),  university  town, 
96 

Pacific  (pa  sif 'Ik)  Ocean,  fishing  in- 
dustry, 279;  coral,  354 


Palestine  (pal'es  tin),  394,  395 

Paris  (par'Is),  German  plans  for  in- 
vasion, 65,  66;  route  to  Rhine 
River,  340 ;  railroad  to  Lyon, 
381 ;  description,  383-384  ;  per- 
fume industry,  411 

Passau  (pas'ou),  description,  215 

Pat4  de  foie  gras  (pa  ta'  de  fwa 
gra')  made  in  Strassburg,  342 

Patras  (pa'tras),  seaport  of  Greece, 
398 

Peanuts,  use  of  oil,  322 

Peat  in  Ireland,  46-48 

Pembroke,  shipyards,  22 

Pennine  (pen'In)  Mountains,  87 

Pennsylvania  (pen  sll  va'nl  a),  silk 
industry,  385-386 

Perfumes,  in  Turkish  bazaars,  393  ; 
attar  of  roses,  404,  405-407 ;  from 
Riviera,  409-411 

Persia  (pflr'sha),  civilization,  2 ; 
trade  with  Russia,  139,  144  ;  furs 
and  skins,  139;  rugs,  147;  wars 
with  Greece,  399 

Peru  (peroo'),  alpaca  wool,  81 

Peter  the  Great,  124,  125 

Petrograd  (pet'ro  grad  or  pye  tro- 
grat'),  canal  to  Kronstadt,  3, 124, 
129 ;  the  eye  of  Russia,  124 ;  built 
by  Peter  the  Great,  124-126; 
canal  connection  with  Volga,  139; 
furs  and  skins,  139  ;  commercial 
importance,  143  ;  wheat,  151 ;  use 
of  Finnish  granite,  160 

Petroleum,  from  Baku,  139 ;  in 
Rumania,  413 

Philadelphia  (fil  a  del'fl  a),  ship- 
building, 35  ;  macaroni,  353 

Philippine  (fll'I  pin)  Islands,  manila 
fiber,  64 

Phoenicia  (fe  nlsh1  a),  position,  2 

Pisa  (pe'sa),  leaning  tower,  335 

Pittsburgh  (plts'bfirg),  situation 
and  climate,  5 ;  cork  manufac- 
turing, 118 

Poland  (po'land),  history,  255  ; 
causes  of  downfall,  255-256 ; 
present  independence,  256;  trade 
with  United  States,  258  ;  occu- 
pations, 259,  261 ;  World  War, 


IXDEX 


431 


259,  260 ;  amber  industry,  261- 
263  ;  salt  industry,  263-270 

Portsmouth  (ports'muth),  ship- 
yards, 22 

Portugal  (por'tu  s^al),  grape  and 
wine  industry,  sf,  328,  329,  332- 
334,  335  ;  former  importance, 
105  ;  sardine  industry,  106,  107  ; 
commerce,  107,  108,  334,  335; 
northern  part,  108 ;  southern 
part,  108  ;  life  of  peasants,  108- 
112  ;  cork  industry,  112-120  ; 
Douro  Kiver,  333 ;  industries, 
334;  size,  335 

Potassium  (p6  tas'i  um)  salts  in 
Germany,  271 

Potatoes,  in  Ireland,  46;  in  Germany, 
177;  in  Central  Europe,  214,  221 

Prague  (prag),  description,  204-206 

Pyrenees  (pir'e  nez)  Mountains,  5, 
319 

Queen  olives,  308 
Queenstown.    See  Cobh 

Raisin  making,  328,  329,  331-332 

Reindeer  in  Lapland,  162,  163 

Reval  (ra'val),  commerce  with 
United  States,  124 

Rheims  (remz),  effects  of  World 
War,  342-343 

Rhine  (rin)  River,  source,  11 ;  canal 
connections,  11,  73, 181, 187,  215; 
junction  with  Saone,  144;  port, 
182;  description,  182-184;  cor- 
ridor of  valley,  185-186 ;  delta- 
building,  232;  vineyards,  178, 
182,  328 ;  route  to  France,  340 

Rhone  (ron)  River,  source,  11; 
canal  connections,  11,  73;  wine 
industry,  338 ;  trip  to  Lyon,  376 

Ribbon  industry,  in  Basel,  240;  in 
St.  Etienne,  382 

Riga  (re  ga),  commerce,  123-124  ; 
furs  shipped,  139;  wheat,  151 

Rivers,  length,  9 ;  affected  by  sur- 
face, 11 

Riviei-a  (revya'ra),  olive  oil,  320; 
fashion  resort,  408 ;  perfume  in- 
dustry, 408-411 


Roman  Empire,  356-357 
Rome,  description,  356-358 
Roquefort  (rok'for')  cheese,  251 
Rotterdam  (rot'gr  dam),conunerce, 

182  ;  description,  184-185 
Rugs,  Persian,  147 
Huhr  Hiver.  183 

Ruhrort  (rooi-'ort),  commerce,  184 
Rumania  (roo  ma'ni  a),  occupations 
and  resources,  210,  412-413; 
former  Turkisli  province,  391. 
411;  size,  position,  population, 
411;  surface,  411-412;  World 
War,  413;  life  in  tlie  capital, 
414;  life  in  the  villages,  414-415 
Russia  (rusli'a),  climate,  4;  canals, 
9,  10;  surface,  11, 129  ;  drainage, 
11,  130;  navy,  34;  flax  industry, 
53  ;  hemp  industry,  61,  62  ;  Ger- 
man plans  in  World  War,  65 ; 
forests,  123, 131, 171 ;  route  from 
Lisbon,  123;  Baltic  ports,  123. 
124;  Peter  the  Great,  125,  126; 
the  building  of  Petrograd,  125- 
126;  furs,  127;  food,  127,  134; 
stoves,  127,  128,  134 ;  teams,  128, 
129;  winter  sports,  129;  canals, 
130,  139  ;  villages,  132-135;  lum- 
bering, 135-137 ;  village  indus- 
tries, 137  ;  traffic  on  the  Volga. 
138-139,  140  ;  the  Volga  River, 
139-140;  fishing,  140,  296,  298- 
299 ;  manufacturing,  143-144  ; 
fairs,  144-148;  serfs  and  peas- 
ants, 148-149  ;  World  War  con- 
ditions, 149-150 ;  wheat  industry, 
150-152 ;  Ukrainia,  150-154 ;  rela- 
tions with  Finland,  158;  former 
control  of  Danube  River,  229 ; 
partition  of  Poland,  256 ;  trade 
with  Norway,  286 ;  sunflower  oil, 
323 ;  durum  wheat,  352,  353 ; 
famines,  352-353;  trade  witli 
France,  376,  381 

Saar  (zar)  valley  coal  mines,  177 
St.  Andreasburg  (zankf  an  dra'as- 

booriv),  canary  birds,  195-196 
St.  Etienne    (sax  ta  tyen'),    indus- 
tries, 382-383 


432 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  —  EUROPE 


St.  Gall  (saN  gal'),  embroideries,  248 

St.  Louis,  position,  144 

St.  Paul's  Epistles  to  the  Corinthi- 
ans, 398 

St.  Peter's  Church,  357 

Salonica  (sa  16  ne'ka),  trade  routes, 
209 

Salt,  from  Russian  steppes,  139; 
in  Poland,  263,  268-270;  uses, 
263-264,  272  ;  how  deposited  and 
obtained,  264-268  ;  in  Germany, 
270,  271 

San  Francisco  (f  ran  sis'ko),  on 
route  of  tramp  steamer,  19,  20; 
macaroni,  353 

Saone  (son)  River,  144,  381 

Sardine  industry,  in  Portugal,  107; 
fishing  grounds,  299 ;  in  Brittany, 
299-305;  exports  from  Oporto, 
334 

Sardinia  (sardin'ia),  coral,  354 

Saxony  (sak'sun  i),  Thuringian 
Mountains,  192 

Scandinavia  (skan  di  na'vi  a),  posi- 
tion, 5,  6;  commerce  with  Poland, 
261 

Scheldt  (skelt)  River,  shipping, 
73;  work,  232 

Scotland  (sk5t'land),  shipyards,  22, 
23,  28-32 ;  mineral  deposits,  24, 
52 ;  highlands,  24 ;  lowlands,  24, 
25  ;  lake  region  and  Trossachs, 
25;  Sir  Walter  Scott,  25;  Loch 
Katrine,  25 ;  Loch  Lomond,  25  ; 
Ben  Lomond,  25;  Forth  River, 
25 ;  the  port  of  Leith,  25  ;  Clyde 
River,  22,  23,  24,  25,  26,  27,  28; 
Glasgow,27,28;  jute,57,58;  trade 
with  Norway,  281 ;  fishing,  297 

Scott,  Sir  Walter,  25,  96 

Seattle  (se  at'l),  on  route  of  tramp 
steamer,  19,  20 

Serbia  (sfir'bi  a),  union  of  Southern 
Slavs,  201 ;  size  and  importance, 
206 ;  former  province  of  Turkey, 
206,  391 ;  development,  206 ; 
World  War,  207,  209,  210;  re- 
sources, 207-208,  210;  life  and 
occupations,  208-209 ;  trade 
routes,  209 


Serfs  of  Russia,  148 

Severn  (sev'ern)  River,  opposite 
the  Thames,  78 

Seville  (se  vil'),  olive  industry,  308, 
310;  climate,  311 

Sheaf  River,  branch  of  Humber,  91 

Sheffield,  description,  91,  92 

Sherry  wine  from  Jerez,  329 

Ships,  size,  17;  schedules,  18; 
kinds,  18,  19,  20,  22 ;  effects  of 
World  War  on  building,  20,  34, 
35 ;  building,  21-38  ;  concrete 
ships,  35,  36 

Siberia  (sibe'ria),  mineral  re- 
sources, 126 ;  trade  with-^ussia, 
138;  furs,  139,  145,  146;  dairy- 
ing, 243 

Sicily  (sis'ili),  coral,  354 

Sierra  Morena  (syer'ra  mo  ra'na) 
Mountains,  310 

Sierra  Nevada  (si  er'a  ne  va'da) 
Mountains,  in  United  States,  4; 
(syer'ra  na  va'tha)  in  Spain,  310 

Silk  industry,  in  Russia,  143 ;  in 
Zurich,  249 ;  in  Italy,  335,  362- 

371,  384-385;  amount  produced, 
362 ;  in  China,  365,  371-372 ;  in 
Japan,  365,  372  ;  in  France,  365, 

372,  375,  376-378;  life  of  silk- 
worm, 365-371 ;  mulberry  trees, 
371,  376 ;  in  United  States,  872, 
385-386 ;  manufacturing,  373- 
374,  378-381 ;  ribbons,  382  ;  fash- 
ions in  silk,  383  ;  in  Switzerland, 
385 ;  in  Greece,  396 ;  in  Bulgaria, 
403 

Simplon  (sim'plon)  Tunnel,  de- 
scription, 6-8 

Sisal  (se  sal')  hemp,  64 

Skagerrack  (sgag'gr  rak),  route  to 
Russia,  123 

Slav  (Slav)  people,  200,  201 

Soap  manufacturing  in  Marseille, 
376 

Sofia  (so'fe  ya),  rope  factories,  403 ; 
age,  403-404;  description,  404 

Solway  River,  shipyards,  22 

Sonneberg  (zon'e  bern),  toy  indus- 
try, 190;  description,  191-193 

Soya  (so'ya)  beans,  uses,  324 


INDEX 


433 


South  America,  vineyards,  326 
Soutliainpton,  shipyards,  22 
Spain,  position,  5 ;  corli,  81,115,11 9, 
120;  grape  and  wine   industry, 
120,  328,  329-332  ;  olive  industry, 
307, 308, 309-319 ;  cities.  310, 319 ; 
life  of  peasants,  311-312,  329 
Spartans  at  Thermopylse,  399 
Spree  (shpra)  Kiver,  canal  connec- 
tions, 187,  106 
Stettin     (shteten'),     shipbuilding, 

33 ;   connnerce,  182,  189 
Stockholm  (stok'holm),  description, 

165-167 
Strassburg    (stras'burg),     descrip- 
tion, 340-342 
Stratford-on-Avon     (strat'fgrd-6n- 

a'von),  95 
Straw  braiding  in  Italy,  335 
Sugar  industry,  in  Russia,  143  ;  in 
Germany,    177,    178,    179,    180; 
in  Central  Europe,   214-215;  in 
France,  376 ;  in  Bulgaria,  403 
Sunflowers,  oil  and  seeds,  134,  323 
Sweden  (swe'den),  trade  with  Por- 
tugal, 108;  smeltingwithcharcoal, 
136-137;  relations  with  Finland, 
158;   lakes,    165;   scenery,   165, 
168;     iron    industry,     167-168; 
farming,    168  ;   lumbering,   169- 
170  ;    manufactures,   170  ;    com- 
merce, 170 ;  match  industry,  171 ; 
dairying,  243  ;  Gota  Canal,  244  ; 
fish  industry,  298 
Switzerland    (swit'zer  land),    posi- 
tion, 6  ;  dairying,  243,  247,  248  ; 
cattle    industry,    246-247,    248; 
Playground  of  the  World,  247; 
Alps  Mountains,  247;   lace  and 
embroidery,  248  ;  silk  industry, 

249,  385;  watch  industry,  249; 
sweet  chocolate,  249 ;  World 
War,  249;  surface,  249-250;  wood 
carving,  247,  250  ;  water  power, 

250,  251 ;  fixation  of  nitrogen, 
250,  251 ;  railroad  to  Lyon,  381 

Tagus  (ta'gus)  River,  105,  106.  107 
Tay  River,  shipbuilding,  21 ;  Dun- 
dee, 57 


Tea  at  Russian  fair,  146,  147 
Tees  (tez)  River,  shipbuilding,  21 
Tliames  (t6mz)  River,  shipbuilding, 
21 ;  opposite  Severn  River,  78  ; 
Houses  of  Parliament,  100  ;  Lon- 
don Bridge,  102  ;   lumber  from 
Russia,  131 
Thermopyhe  (thgr  mop'i  le),  battle, 

399 
Thuringian    (thil  rln'ji  an)    Moun- 
tains, toys,  191 ;  appearance,  192 
Tiber  (ti'ber)   River,  situation   of 

Rome,  356 
Tigris  (ti'gris)  River  basin,  391 
Tisza  (te'so)  River,  occupations  in 

valley,  228 
Titanic  (ti  tan'ik),  building,  22 
Tobacco,  in  Germany,  184  ;  in  Dan- 
ube   valley,    221 ;    in   Bulgaria, 
403 
Torre  del  Greco  (tor'ra  dgl  gra'ko), 

coral,  354 
Tortoise-shell  industry,  353,  356 
Toy  industry,  in  Germany,  190. 191, 

193-194  ;  in  Switzerland,  250 
Trent  River,  89 

Trieste  (trees'ta),  description,  359 
Tripoli  (trlp'6  li),  coral,  354 
Tromso  (troms'u),  fishing  industry, 
279-280  ;  on  coastal  route,  284  ; 
Lapps,  284 
Trondhjem  (tron'ygm),  fishing  in- 
dustry, 280 ;  description,  282-283 
Trossachs  (tros'uks),  description,  25 
Tula  (too'la),  iron  and  steel,  143 
Tunis  (tu  nis),  cork,    115;  olives, 

307,  320;  coral,  354 
Tunnels :  Simplon,  6-8  ;  Mt.  Cenis, 

7 ;  St.  Gotthard,  7 ;  Arlberg.  7 
Turkestan  (toor  ke  stan'),  trade  with 

Russia,  138,  139  ;  furs,  139 
Turkey,  cork,  120  ;  size  of  former 
empire,  391 ;  menace  of  rule, 
391  ;  waning  power,  391 ;  impor- 
tance of  position,  391 ;  World 
War,  391,  394  ;  lost  provinces, 
206,  391,  401,  411,  415 
Turks,  migration  from  Asia,  389  ; 
capture  of  Constantinople,  391 ; 
capture  of  Sofia,  404 


434 


INDUSTRIAL  STUDIES  —  EUROPE 


Twain,  Mark,  393 
Tweed  River,  course,  24 
Tyne  (tin)  River,  shipbuilding,  21, 
22 

Ukraine  (u'kran),  description,  150- 
154 

Ulm  (oolm),  description,  213 

United  States,  climate,  4 ;  ship- 
building, 20,  34-36;  flax  and 
linen,  53,  64  ;  jute,  59 ;  hemp, 
62,  63  ;  rope,  63  ;  density  of  pop- 
ulation, 76  ;  lumber,  81  ;  wool, 
81,  85;  cotton,  85;  trade  with 
Portugal,  108,  116,  117;  trade 
with  Spain,  116,  117  ;  skins  from 
Russia,  139  ;  imports  from  Hol- 
land, 185  ;  diamond  trade,  242  ; 
trade  with  the  East,  243  ;  fixa- 
tion of  nitrogen,  250  ;  dairying, 
251-252  ;  trade  with  Poland,  258, 
261 ;  salt,  271,  272  ;  trade  with 
Scotland,  281-282;  fish,  296; 
olives  and  olive  oil,  308,  310, 
321-322 ;  bottles  for  olive  oil, 
308  ;  study  of  new  industries, 
320  ;  vegetable  oils,  322  ;  cotton- 
seed oil,  322.  323-324 ;  vineyards, 
326,  344  ;  raisins,  332  ;  trade  with 
Italy,  342  ;  macaroni,  352,  353  ; 
silk,  372,  374,  385-386;  trade 
with  France,  376,  381 ;  trade 
with  Greece,  398  ;  attar  of  roses, 
407  ;  wheat,  412 

Ural  (u'ral)  Mountains  separate 
Siberia  from  Russia,  129 

Valdai  (val  di')  Hills,  watershed  in 
Russia,  11.  129 

Vardo  (var'dg),  fishing  industry, 
280 

Vasco  da  Gama  (vas'ko  da  ga'ma), 
object  of  early  voyage,  390 

Vatican,  home  of  Pope,  357 

Venice  (ven'is),  ancient  commerce, 
71,  261,  359 ;  compared  with  Am- 
sterdam, 239 

Vesuvius  (v^  su'vi  us),  near  Naples, 
352 


Vienna  (ve  en'a),  past,  212  ;  pres- 
ent, 212  ;  advantage  of  position^ 
218  ;  description,  218-220 ;  mill- 
ing, 226 

Vinegar,  made  from  wine,  343 

Vineyards,  in  Germany,  178,  182, 
327,  328  ;  in  Europe,  326  ;  in  the 
United  States,  326  ;  in  South 
America,  326  ;  in  Africa,  326  ; 
in  Australia,  326 ;  in  Italy,  326, 
327,  335,  336  ;  in  France,  327, 
337,  338,  339  ;  in  Spain,  329  ;  in 
Portugal,  329,  333  ;  support  of 
people,  344-345 

Vistula  (vis'tu  la)  River,  canal  con- 
nections, 187,  189 ;  commerce, 
260,  261 

Volga  (vol'ga)  River,  130  ;  traffic, 
138  ;  description,  138-140  ;  junc- 
tion with  Oka  River,  144 

Vosges  (vozh)  Mountains,  route 
between  Germany  and  France, 
340 

Warsaw  (war'sa),  description,  258, 
259  ;  commerce,  260 

Warwick  (wor'Ik)  Castle,  96 

Watchmaking  in  Switzerland,  249 

Water-power  in  Switzerland,  250  •, 
in  Norway,  251 

Wear  (wer)  River  shipyards.  21. 

Weser  (va'zer)  River,  canal  con- 
nections, 181,  187  ;  seaport,  182  ; 
importance,  186 

West  Indies,  Dutch  trade,  234- 
235  ;  tortoise  shell,  356 

Wetter  (vet'er),  lake  in  Sweden, 
171 

Wheat,  on  Volga  River,  139;  in 
Ukrainia.  150-151 ;  in  Jugo- 
slavia, 209 ;  in  Hungary,  221, 
223.  224.  225,  228  ;  durum  wheat, 
352,  353  ;  in  Bulgaria,  402 ;  in 
Rumania,  412  ;  Black  Sea  area, 
412 

White  Sea,  connected  with  Cas- 
pian, 130 

White  Star  Line,  shipyards,  22 

Wieliczka(vye  ly^ch'ka)  saltmines, 
268-270 


INDEX 


435 


Wine  industry,  Rhine  vineyards, 
178,  182,  328  ;  where  carried  on, 
326,  328  ;  in  Spain  and  Portugal, 
329,  335  ;  port  wine, 332-333  ;  in 
Madeira  Islands,  335 ;  in  Italy, 
335-337;  in  France,  337-339, 
343  ;  in  Algeria,  337  ;  use  in 
European  countries,  337-338  ; 
by-products,  343-344 

Woodcarving,  in  Germany,  194- 
195  ;  in  Switzerland,  247,  250 

Woolen  industry  in  England,  87-90 

World  War,  change  in  govern- 
ments, 12  ;  map  changes,  13 ; 
effects  on  shipbuilding,  20  ;  pen- 
ning up  of  German  navy,  34  ; 
effects  in  Belgium,  65-69,  71  ; 
effects  in  llussia,  149  ;  Ger- 
many's part,  174,  175,  176,  177; 
United  States,  174-175;  results, 
175,176;  Saar  valley  coal  mines, 


177;  Kiel  Canal,  180;  Rhine 
valley  corridor,  185-186  ;  Jugo- 
slavia, 201  ;  effects  in  Switzer- 
land, 249  ;  effects  in  Poland,  259, 
260  ;  effects  in  France,  338,  339, 
342-343;  effects  in  Italy,  358- 
359  ;  Alsace-Lorraine,  339-342  ; 
effects  in  Turkey,  391,  394  ; 
effects  in  Rumania,  413 ;  effects 
in  Albania,  415 

Yarmouth  (yar'muth),  fishing,  296 
Yokohama  (yo'ko  lia'ma),  on  route 

of  tramp  steamer,  20 
Yorkshire  (york'shgr)  county,  wool 

industry,  89  ;  metal  industry,  91 

Zuider  Zee  (zi'dgr  ze'),  description, 
233-234 

Zurich  (zoo'rik  or  tsii'riK),  silk  in- 
dustry, 249,  385  ;  size,  385 


\ 


This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below 


15  ISii 

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